Trade with the Enemy in the Scandinavian and Baltic Ports during the Napoleonic War: for and against

1962 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
pp. 123-140 ◽  
Author(s):  
A. N. Ryan
Keyword(s):  
Essential Condition ◽  
The North ◽  
British Trade ◽  
To Come ◽  
The Baltic

The French victories over Prussia and Russia in 1806–07 enabled Napoleon to impose upon the continent a peace diametrically opposed to the interests of Britain. An essential condition of it, as was made clear in the Berlin Decree and the Franco-Russian treaty of Tilsit, was that Britain should be banished from Europe. Within a few months of the Tilsit agreement in July 1807 all the northern powers, except Sweden which kept out of the French alliance until 1810, were formally at war with Britain and were pledged to break their commercial connexions with her. It appeared that Napoleon, with the aid of Russia, Prussia and Denmark–Norway, had finally shut the Baltic to British trade and had thus made the commercial exclusion of Britain from the continent a reality. As things turned out, trade between Britain and the north of Europe, though harassed by enemy commerce raiders and impeded by French agents, was not destroyed. The Scandinavian and Baltic ports, the last in Europe to come under French influence, were never firmly closed even when Napoleon''s continental system was most effectively enforced in 1811

Physical and Biological Conditions in the North Sea

1896 ◽  
Vol 4 (3) ◽  
pp. 233-263
Author(s):  
J. T. Cunningham
Keyword(s):  
Present Article ◽  
North Sea ◽  
Surface Waters ◽  
Fish Fauna ◽  
Marine Fauna ◽  
The North ◽  
Interesting Paper ◽  
The North Sea ◽  
To Come ◽  
The Baltic

IN my report, in the preceding number of this Journal, on my observations in the North Sea, I referred briefly to the problem of the relation between the physical and biological conditions. This problem will afford scope for investigation for some time to come, and the purpose of the present article is to discuss and compare some of the most recent additions to our knowledge of the matter. The paper by Mr. H. N. Dickson, to which I referred in my previous report, was published in the Geographical Journal last March, under the title of “The Movements of the Surface Waters of the North Sea,” and in the Scottish Geographical Journal, in 1894, was published a series of papers by Professor Pettersson on “Swedish Hydrographic Research in the Baltic and the North Seas.” Professor Heincke has discussed the fish fauna of Heligoland, its composition and sources, in an interesting paper in the series issued under the title of “Wissenschaftliche Meeresuntersuchungen,” by the staff of the Biological Station at Heligoland, in association with the Commission for the Investigation of the German Seas, at Kiel. Professor Heincke's paper is contained in Bnd. I., Hft. 1 of this series (1894), and in the same volume are a number of papers dealing on similar lines with other divisions of the marine fauna of the Heligoland Bight.It will be most convenient and logical to start the present discussion with a consideration of the results of Professor Pettersson's work. He found that the Skagerack and Cattegat were filled with layers of water distinguished from one another by differences of salinity, and that the lower layers entered the channel as under–currents, and could be recognised at the surface somewhere in the North Sea.

Tacitus on the Germans

1964 ◽  
Vol 11 (1) ◽  
pp. 64-76 ◽  
Author(s):  
W. Beare
Keyword(s):  
West Germany ◽  
Roman Religion ◽  
The North ◽  
South West ◽  
Southern Russia ◽  
To Come ◽  
The Baltic ◽  
The University ◽  
To Receive ◽  
Vast Range

One of the most primitive and genuine elements of Roman religion was the feeling that some mysterious power haunted the dark wood. Germany was pre-eminently the land of dark woods in which the practical-minded Roman faltered and lost his way. There were the woods along the banks of the Rhine, in which we sometimes walked in our student days at the University of Bonn. There was the wooded Taunus range, where we visited the reconstructed Saalburg, a fort belonging to the limes or line of entrenchments constructed to protect the Roman territory in south-west Germany. There was Abnoba, the Black Forest; there was the Hercynian Forest; a vague term applied to the vast range of wooded hills stretching a thousand miles from the Rhine along the Danube and around Bohemia to the Carpathians; there was the Saltus Teutoburgiensis, where in A.d. 9 Quintilius Varus and his three legions had been wiped out by the Cherusci under their leader Arminius in a battle which had turned the tide of history; there was the unknown island wood where our grim ancestors, the Anglii and the Saxones, performed the gloomy rites of the goddess Nerthus from which none of the slave ministrants was allowed to come away alive. Beyond lay even wilder regions and more savage peoples: the Aestii or Esthonians, who wore boars' heads and lived on the Baltic shore, from which they gathered amber and were astonished to receive a price for it from the traders; the nomadic Sarmatae of central and southern Russia, who lived in wagons and ate horse-flesh; the ferocious Fenni, or Finns, who had no home at all, but slept on the ground and lived on herbs and any animals they could shoot with their bone-tipped arrows, hunting with the bow being the life of both the man and the woman, while the babies were left with no protection against weather and wild creatures except a sort of hovel made out of interlaced branches; and further still the Hellusii and the Oxiones, who had the faces of men and the bodies of animals; to the north the dead seas of the midnight sun, the frozen Arctic Ocean, where every morning could be heard the noise of the sun rising from the waters, and the horses drawing his chariot could be seen.

The Relations Between England and the Northern Powers, 1689–1697.: Part I.—Denmark

1911 ◽  
Vol 5 ◽  
pp. 157-191
Author(s):  
M. Lane
Keyword(s):  
Seventeenth Century ◽  
Balance Of Power ◽  
Modern History ◽  
Louis Xiv ◽  
The North ◽  
To Come ◽  
The Baltic ◽  
William Iii ◽  
Bear Witness

A notable feature of Baltic politics at the close of the seventeenth century was the rivalry of Sweden and Denmark, which had fought with each other during several centuries for supremacy, or even for existence. To the permanence and strength of this feeling, and its importance in the politics of the North, contemporary and modern authorities, the correspondence of Louis XIV and William III and their ministers, with Ranke, Bain, and the ‘Cambridge Modern History,’ equally bear witness. At this period, however, Denmark hankered after an alliance with Sweden, of course on her own terms. The explanation is that Denmark was a more purely Baltic Power than Sweden; If there had been peace in the Baltic, Denmark could have become powerful and wealthy; but her ministers, themselves wretchedly poor, were actuated by mercenary motives. Hence the dangerous policy of fleecing the merchants who passed the Oresund. Unfortunately, the refusal of Sweden to come to terms with her rival made it possible for the English and Dutch, especially the latter, to maintain a balance of power in the Baltic, and thus diminish Denmark's gains. Griffenfeld, who has been regarded as Denmark's greatest statesman, had seen how beneficial an alliance with Sweden, with the Duchy of Holstein-Gottorp (whose efforts against Danish absorption were vigorously supported by Sweden) and France, the rival of the Sea Powers, would be to Denmark, provided she, and not Sweden, manipulated the policy of the league for her own benefit.

Investor-State Dispute Settlement under NAFTA Chapter 11: The Shape of Things to Come?

1998 ◽  
Vol 35 ◽  
pp. 263-290
Author(s):  
J. Anthony VanDuzer
Keyword(s):  
Free Trade Agreement ◽  
Dispute Settlement ◽  
Trade Agreement ◽  
Minimum Standards ◽  
The North ◽  
State Behaviour ◽  
Nafta Chapter 11 ◽  
To Come ◽  
The Right

SummaryRecently, there has been a proliferation of international agreements imposing minimum standards on states in respect of their treatment of foreign investors and allowing investors to initiate dispute settlement proceedings where a state violates these standards. Of greatest significance to Canada is Chapter 11 of the North American Free Trade Agreement, which provides both standards for state behaviour and the right to initiate binding arbitration. Since 1996, four cases have been brought under Chapter 11. This note describes the Chapter 11 process and suggests some of the issues that may arise as it is increasingly resorted to by investors.

Russian Oil: Production and Exports

2003 ◽  
pp. 136-146
Author(s):  
K. Liuhto
Keyword(s):  
Baltic Sea ◽  
Statistical Data ◽  
Oil Production ◽  
The Baltic Sea ◽  
North West ◽  
The North ◽  
Oil Transportation ◽  
Sea Ports ◽  
The Baltic

Statistical data on reserves, production and exports of Russian oil are provided in the article. The author pays special attention to the expansion of opportunities of sea oil transportation by construction of new oil terminals in the North-West of the country and first of all the largest terminal in Murmansk. In his opinion, one of the main problems in this sphere is prevention of ecological accidents in the process of oil transportation through the Baltic sea ports.

Paleoecological study of bottom sediments of the lake Goluboye (Karelian Isthmus) according to the results of diatom analysis

2019 ◽  
pp. 265-269
Author(s):  
Angelina E. Shatalova ◽  
Uriy A. Kublitsky ◽  
Dmitry A. Subetto ◽  
Anna V. Ludikova ◽  
Alar Rosentau ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Baltic Sea ◽  
Bottom Sediments ◽  
Modern Science ◽  
Karelian Isthmus ◽  
The Baltic Sea ◽  
Diatom Analysis ◽  
North West ◽  
The North ◽  
Important Direction ◽  
The Baltic

The study of paleogeography of lakes is an actual and important direction in modern science. As part of the study of lakes in the North-West of the Karelian Isthmus, this analysis will establish the dynamics of salinity of objects, which will allow to reconstruct changes in the level of the Baltic Sea in the Holocene.

COMPARATIVE CHARACTERISTIC OF SEA RADIANCE COEFFICIENT SPECTRA MEASURED REMOTELY IN COASTAL WATERS OF FIVE SEAS

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Vera Rostovtseva ◽  
Vera Rostovtseva ◽  
Igor Goncharenko ◽  
Igor Goncharenko ◽  
Dmitrii Khlebnikov ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Sea Water ◽  
Calibration Method ◽  
Aral Sea ◽  
Comparative Characteristic ◽  
The Black Sea ◽  
North East ◽  
The North ◽  
Water Constituents ◽  
Characteristic Features ◽  
The Baltic

Sea radiance coefficient, defined as the ratio of the sunlight reflected by the water bulk to the sunlight illuminating the water surface, is one of the most informative optical characteristics of the seawater that can be obtained by passive remote sensing. We got the sea radiance coefficient spectra by processing the data obtained in measurements from board a moving ship. Using sea radiance coefficient optical spectra it is possible to estimate water constituents concentration and their distribution over the aquatory of interest. However, thus obtained sea radiance coefficient spectra are strongly affected by weather and measurement conditions and needs some calibration. It was shown that practically all the spectra of sea radiance coefficient have some generic peculiarities regardless of the type of sea waters. These peculiarities can be explained by the spectrum of pure sea water absorption. Taking this into account a new calibration method was developed. The measurements were carried out with the portative spectroradiometers from board a ship in the five different seas: at the north-east coast of the Black Sea, in the Gdansk Bay of the Baltic Sea, in the west part of the Aral Sea, in the Kara Sea with the Ob’ Bay and in the Philippine Sea at the coast of Taiwan. The new method of calibration was applied to the obtained spectra of the sea radiance coefficient that enabled us to get the corresponding absorption spectra and estimate the water constituents concentration in every region. The obtained concentration estimates were compared to the values obtained in water samples taken during the same measurement cycle and available data from other investigations. The revealed peculiarities of the sea radiance coefficient spectra in the aquatories under exploration were compared to the corresponding water content and some characteristic features were discussed.

Environmental impact of nutrients from nordic fish farming

1995 ◽  
Vol 31 (10) ◽  
pp. 61-71 ◽  
Author(s):  
M. Enell
Keyword(s):  
Major Part ◽  
Fish Farming ◽  
Fish Farms ◽  
Feed Composition ◽  
The North ◽  
Comprehensive Development ◽  
The Baltic ◽  
Inland Water Bodies ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Feed Coefficient

During the last 20 years there has been an interesting development of the Nordic fish farming, with regard to the feeding and farming technology and to the increase in production quantities. During the period 1974-1994 the production increased from 15,800 to about 250,000 tonnes/year. In 1974 the major part of the production was in Denmark, and in 1994 the major part was in Norway. The nutrient impact of fish farming on surrounding sea areas is mainly a function of the feed coefficient, the feed composition and metabolic processes in the fish. The comprehensive development of the feed composition and the feeding technology has resulted in reduced load of unmetabolized nutrients from fish farms, calculated per tonne fish produced. In 1974 the mean Nordic feed coefficient was 2.08 and in 1994 the coefficient was 1.25. Feed coefficients of 1.0-1.1 are now reported for Danish and Norwegian freshwater and marine fish farms. The nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) content of the feed has decreased, in addition the quality of the nutrient substances in the feed has changed, especially for N. The N content has decreased from 7.8 to 6.8% during the period 1974-1994 and the content of P has decreased from 1.7 to 0.7% during the same period. This development of the feed coefficient and the feed composition has resulted in a present load from a typical Nordic fish farm of 55 kg N and 4.8 kg P/t fish produced. The figures for 1974 were 132 kg N and 31 kg P/t fish produced. The Nordic fish farming production in 1994 resulted in a load of about 13,750 t N and about 1,200 t P on the actual recipients. The load from the Swedish, Finnish and Danish fish farming operations, with the Baltic Sea and the Skagerrak as the recipients, is negligible in comparison with other pollution sources. The quantities of N and P from the fish farming are equal to 0.5% of the atmospheric deposition on the sea surface and 3% of the atmospheric P load. Norwegian, Icelandic and the Faroe Islands fish farming operations are using the North Sea and the Norwegian Sea as the recipients. However, the nutrient load from single fish farms in certain coastal and inland water bodies can be significant and must be considered in the impact assessment together with other sources.

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