scholarly journals Innate Immunity Evasion Strategies of Highly Pathogenic Coronaviruses: SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jin-Yan Li ◽  
Zhi-Jian Zhou ◽  
Qiong Wang ◽  
Qing-Nan He ◽  
Ming-Yi Zhao ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Immune Response ◽  
Pattern Recognition ◽  
Current Knowledge ◽  
Viral Pathogenesis ◽  
Host Cells ◽  
Highly Pathogenic ◽  
Cellular Processes ◽  
Antiviral Therapies ◽  
The Past ◽  
Human Coronaviruses

In the past two decades, coronavirus (CoV) has emerged frequently in the population. Three CoVs (SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2) have been identified as highly pathogenic human coronaviruses (HP-hCoVs). Particularly, the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 warns that HP-hCoVs present a high risk to human health. Like other viruses, HP-hCoVs interact with their host cells in sophisticated manners for infection and pathogenesis. Here, we reviewed the current knowledge about the interference of HP-hCoVs in multiple cellular processes and their impacts on viral infection. HP-hCoVs employed various strategies to suppress and evade from immune response, including shielding viral RNA from recognition by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), impairing IFN-I production, blocking the downstream pathways of IFN-I, and other evasion strategies. This summary provides a comprehensive view of the interplay between HP-hCoVs and the host cells, which is helpful to understand the mechanism of viral pathogenesis and develop antiviral therapies.

scholarly journals Human Coronaviruses: Counteracting the Damage by Storm

Viruses ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (8) ◽  
pp. 1457
Author(s):  
Dewald Schoeman ◽  
Burtram C. Fielding
Keyword(s):  
Immune Response ◽  
Severe Disease ◽  
Antiviral Agents ◽  
The Elderly ◽  
Highly Pathogenic ◽  
Vaccine Responses ◽  
Cell Mediated Immune Response ◽  
Inhibition Antibody ◽  
A Cell ◽  
Human Coronaviruses

Over the past 18 years, three highly pathogenic human (h) coronaviruses (CoVs) have caused severe outbreaks, the most recent causative agent, SARS-CoV-2, being the first to cause a pandemic. Although much progress has been made since the COVID-19 pandemic started, much about SARS-CoV-2 and its disease, COVID-19, is still poorly understood. The highly pathogenic hCoVs differ in some respects, but also share some similarities in clinical presentation, the risk factors associated with severe disease, and the characteristic immunopathology associated with the progression to severe disease. This review aims to highlight these overlapping aspects of the highly pathogenic hCoVs—SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2—briefly discussing the importance of an appropriately regulated immune response; how the immune response to these highly pathogenic hCoVs might be dysregulated through interferon (IFN) inhibition, antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE), and long non-coding RNA (lncRNA); and how these could link to the ensuing cytokine storm. The treatment approaches to highly pathogenic hCoV infections are discussed and it is suggested that a greater focus be placed on T-cell vaccines that elicit a cell-mediated immune response, using rapamycin as a potential agent to improve vaccine responses in the elderly and obese, and the potential of stapled peptides as antiviral agents.

scholarly journals Impact of Salmonella enterica Type III Secretion System Effectors on the Eukaryotic Host Cell

2012 ◽  
Vol 2012 ◽  
pp. 1-36 ◽  
Author(s):  
Francisco Ramos-Morales
Keyword(s):  
Type Iii Secretion ◽  
Salmonella Enterica ◽  
Current Knowledge ◽  
Cellular Level ◽  
Host Cells ◽  
Secretion Systems ◽  
Type Iii ◽  
Cellular Processes ◽  
Type Iii Secretion Systems ◽  
Near Future

Type III secretion systems are molecular machines used by many Gram-negative bacterial pathogens to inject proteins, known as effectors, directly into eukaryotic host cells. These proteins manipulate host signal transduction pathways and cellular processes to the pathogen’s advantage. Salmonella enterica possesses two virulence-related type III secretion systems that deliver more than forty effectors. This paper reviews our current knowledge about the functions, biochemical activities, host targets, and impact on host cells of these effectors. First, the concerted action of effectors at the cellular level in relevant aspects of the interaction between Salmonella and its hosts is analyzed. Then, particular issues that will drive research in the field in the near future are discussed. Finally, detailed information about each individual effector is provided.

scholarly journals Extracellular Vesicles in Viral Spread and Antiviral Response

Viruses ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 12 (6) ◽  
pp. 623 ◽  
Author(s):  
Raquel Bello-Morales ◽  
Inés Ripa ◽  
José Antonio López-Guerrero
Keyword(s):  
Immune Response ◽  
Extracellular Vesicles ◽  
Current Knowledge ◽  
Host Immune Response ◽  
Host Cells ◽  
Viral Spread ◽  
Viral Responses ◽  
Hsv 1

Viral spread by both enveloped and non-enveloped viruses may be mediated by extracellular vesicles (EVs), including microvesicles (MVs) and exosomes. These secreted vesicles have been demonstrated to be an efficient mechanism that viruses can use to enter host cells, enhance spread or evade the host immune response. However, the complex interplay between viruses and EVs gives rise to antagonistic biological tasks—to benefit the viruses, enhancing infection and interfering with the immune system or to benefit the host, by mediating anti-viral responses. Exosomes from cells infected with herpes simplex type 1 (HSV-1) may transport viral and host transcripts, proteins and innate immune components. This virus may also use MVs to expand its tropism and evade the host immune response. This review aims to describe the current knowledge about EVs and their participation in viral infection, with a specific focus on the role of exosomes and MVs in herpesvirus infections, particularly that of HSV-1.

scholarly journals Update on non-canonical microRNAs

2014 ◽  
Vol 5 (4) ◽  
pp. 275-287 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ahmed Maher Abdelfattah ◽  
Chanhyun Park ◽  
Michael Y. Choi
Keyword(s):  
Immune Response ◽  
Cell Proliferation ◽  
Stem Cell ◽  
Potential Role ◽  
Disease Pathogenesis ◽  
Stem Cell Proliferation ◽  
Cellular Processes ◽  
The Past ◽  
Integral Role ◽  
Different Tissues

AbstractNon-canonical microRNAs are a recently-discovered subset of microRNAs. They structurally and functionally resemble canonical miRNAs, but were found to follow distinct maturation pathways, typically bypassing one or more steps of the classic canonical biogenesis pathway. Non-canonical miRNAs were found to have diverse origins, including introns, snoRNAs, endogenous shRNAs and tRNAs. Our knowledge about their functions remains relatively primitive; however, many interesting discoveries have taken place in the past few years. They have been found to take part in several cellular processes, such as immune response and stem cell proliferation. Adversely, their deregulation has pathologic effects on several different tissues, which strongly suggests an integral role for non-canonical miRNAs in disease pathogenesis. In this review, we discuss the recently-discovered functional characteristics of non-canonical miRNAs and illustrate their principal maturation pathways as well as debating their potential role in multiple cellular processes.

scholarly journals Commentary on the Regulation of Viral Proteins in Autophagy Process

2014 ◽  
Vol 2014 ◽  
pp. 1-8 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ching-Yuan Cheng ◽  
Pei-I Chi ◽  
Hung-Jen Liu
Keyword(s):  
Innate Immunity ◽  
Life Cycle ◽  
Current Knowledge ◽  
Viral Proteins ◽  
Host Cells ◽  
Cell Regulation ◽  
Cellular Processes ◽  
Virus Life Cycle ◽  
Cellular Pathways ◽  
The Relationship

The ability to subvert intracellular antiviral defenses is necessary for virus to survive as its replication occurs only in the host cells. Viruses have to modulate cellular processes and antiviral mechanisms to their own advantage during the entire virus life cycle. Autophagy plays important roles in cell regulation. Its function is not only to catabolize aggregate proteins and damaged organelles for recycling but also to serve as innate immunity to remove intracellular pathogenic elements such as viruses. Nevertheless, some viruses have evolved to negatively regulate autophagy by inhibiting its formation. Even more, some viruses have employed autophagy to benefit their replication. To date, there are more and more growing evidences uncovering the functions of many viral proteins to regulate autophagy through different cellular pathways. In this review, we will discuss the relationship between viruses and autophagy and summarize the current knowledge on the functions of viral proteins contributing to affect autophagy process.

scholarly journals Modulation of the Host Immune Response by Schistosome Egg-Secreted Proteins Is a Critical Avenue of Host–Parasite Communication

Pathogens ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 10 (7) ◽  
pp. 863
Author(s):  
Jack P. Carson ◽  
Geoffrey N. Gobert
Keyword(s):  
Immune Response ◽  
Current Knowledge ◽  
Host Immune Response ◽  
Egg Laying ◽  
Host Cells ◽  
Future Application ◽  
Mammalian Host ◽  
Immunomodulatory Activity ◽  
Host Immune System

During a schistosome infection, the interactions that occur between the mammalian host and the parasite change rapidly once egg laying begins. Both juvenile and adult schistosomes adapt to indefinitely avoid the host immune system. In contrast, the survival of eggs relies on quickly traversing from the host. Following the commencement of egg laying, the host immune response undergoes a shift from a type 1 helper (Th1) inflammatory response to a type 2 helper (Th2) granulomatous response. This change is driven by immunomodulatory proteins within the egg excretory/secretory products (ESPs), which interact with host cells and alter their behaviour to promote egg translocation. However, in parallel, these ESPs also provoke the development of chronic schistosomiasis pathology. Recent studies using high-throughput proteomics have begun to characterise the components of schistosome egg ESPs, particularly those of Schistosoma mansoni, S. japonicum and S. haematobium. Future application of this knowledge may lead to the identification of proteins with novel immunomodulatory activity or pathological importance. However, efforts in this area are limited by a lack of in situ or in vivo functional characterisation of these proteins. This review will highlight the current knowledge of the content and demonstrated functions of schistosome egg ESPs.

Nanotechnology based approaches for COVID-19: A Path forward

2021 ◽  
Vol 05 ◽  
Author(s):  
Suraj N. Mali ◽  
Amit P. Pratap
Keyword(s):  
Respiratory Infections ◽  
Viral Pathogenesis ◽  
Daily Basis ◽  
Surface Coatings ◽  
Host Cells ◽  
Google Scholar ◽  
Highly Pathogenic ◽  
Healthcare Burden ◽  
Current Review

Background: SARS-COV-2 causes the highly pathogenic disease called COVID-19. This disease leads to varieties of respiratory infections like pneumonia, cold, sneezing, etc. As this disease is being transmitted via airborne droplets, it is highly essential to use PPEs including masks, gloves, etc. This virus interacts with ACE2 receptor and further makes its entry into host cells leading viral pathogenesis. This viral is reported to be originated from Wuhan market, China. Despite of on-going efforts to control the spread, numbers of cases of COVID-19 are increasing on daily basis. Objective: This study aims to collect more information about aspects of nanotechnology based applications towards COVID-19 management. Methods: A systemic search has been carried out using PubMed, Google Scholar, CNKI, etc. for relevant studies. Results and Conclusions: Nanotechnology based various approaches like nanomedicines, surface coatings with nanoparticles, nanoparticle coated PPEs, and nanosensors could significantly reduce the healthcare burden by reducing the spread. Current review focuses on various approaches of nanotechnology during the pandemic COVID-19.

scholarly journals Coronavirus, the King Who Wanted More Than a Crown: From Common to the Highly Pathogenic SARS-CoV-2, Is the Key in the Accessory Genes?

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Nathalie Chazal
Keyword(s):  
Current Knowledge ◽  
Etiologic Agent ◽  
Therapeutic Interventions ◽  
Special Focus ◽  
Accessory Gene ◽  
Cellular Mechanisms ◽  
Highly Pathogenic ◽  
Gene Acquisition ◽  
Human Coronaviruses ◽  
Virus Adaptation

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), that emerged in late 2019, is the etiologic agent of the current “coronavirus disease 2019” (COVID-19) pandemic, which has serious health implications and a significant global economic impact. Of the seven human coronaviruses, all of which have a zoonotic origin, the pandemic SARS-CoV-2, is the third emerging coronavirus, in the 21st century, highly pathogenic to the human population. Previous human coronavirus outbreaks (SARS-CoV-1 and MERS-CoV) have already provided several valuable information on some of the common molecular and cellular mechanisms of coronavirus infections as well as their origin. However, to meet the new challenge caused by the SARS-CoV-2, a detailed understanding of the biological specificities, as well as knowledge of the origin are crucial to provide information on viral pathogenicity, transmission and epidemiology, and to enable strategies for therapeutic interventions and drug discovery. Therefore, in this review, we summarize the current advances in SARS-CoV-2 knowledges, in light of pre-existing information of other recently emerging coronaviruses. We depict the specificity of the immune response of wild bats and discuss current knowledge of the genetic diversity of bat-hosted coronaviruses that promotes viral genome expansion (accessory gene acquisition). In addition, we describe the basic virology of coronaviruses with a special focus SARS-CoV-2. Finally, we highlight, in detail, the current knowledge of genes and accessory proteins which we postulate to be the major keys to promote virus adaptation to specific hosts (bat and human), to contribute to the suppression of immune responses, as well as to pathogenicity.

scholarly journals Epigenetic Lens to Visualize the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) Infection in COVID-19 Pandemic

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Nitin Saksena ◽  
Srinivasa Reddy Bonam ◽  
Monica Miranda-Saksena
Keyword(s):  
Immune Response ◽  
Current Knowledge ◽  
Rna Virus ◽  
Expression Patterns ◽  
Host Cells ◽  
Human Populations ◽  
Host Interactions ◽  
Epigenetic Machinery ◽  
Immune Sensing ◽  
Post Entry

In <20 years, we have witnessed three different epidemics with coronaviruses, SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2 in human populations, causing widespread mortality. SARS-CoV-2, through its rapid global spread, has led to the pandemic that we call COVID-19. As of February 1, 2021, the global infections linked to SARS-CoV-2 stand at 103,503,340, with 2,236,960 deaths, and 75,108,099 recoveries. This review attempts to highlight host-pathogen interaction with particular emphasis on the role of epigenetic machinery in regulating the disease. Although researchers, since the start of the pandemic, have been intensely engaged in diverse areas to understand the mechanisms involved in SARS-CoV-2 infection to find answers that can bring about innovative ways to swiftly treat and prevent disease progression, this review provides an overview on how the host epigenetics is modulated and subverted by SARS-CoV-2 to enter the host cells and drive immunopathogenesis. Epigenetics is the study that combines genetic and non-genetic factors controlling phenotypic variation, which are primarily a consequence of external and environmental stimuli. These stimuli alter the activity of a gene without impinging on the DNA code. In viral-host interactions, DNA/RNA methylation, non-coding RNAs, chromatin remodeling, and histone modifications are known to regulate and modulate host gene expression patterns. Viruses such as Coronaviruses (an RNA virus) show intrinsic association with these processes. They have evolved the ability to tamper with host epigenetic machinery to interfere with immune sensing pathways to evade host immune response, thereby enhancing its replication and pathogenesis post-entry. These epigenetic alterations allow the virus to weaken the host's immune response to successfully spread infection. How this occurs, and what epigenetic mechanisms are altered is poorly understood both for coronaviruses and other respiratory RNA viruses. The review highlights several cutting-edge aspects of epigenetic work primarily pertinent to SARS-CoV-2, which has been published between 2019 and 2020 to showcase the current knowledge both in terms of success and failures and take lessons that will assist us in understanding the disease to develop better treatments suited to kill SARS-CoV-2.

scholarly journals COVID-19 : histoire, pathogenèse et réponse immunitaire de l'hôte

2021 ◽  
Vol 8 (1) ◽  
pp. 52-58
Author(s):  
Takieddine Hamadou ◽  
◽  
Imene Hamadou ◽  
Ahmed Menad ◽  
Somia Bouameur ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Immune Response ◽  
Current Knowledge ◽  
Rna Virus ◽  
Multiorgan Failure ◽  
Alveolar Epithelial Cells ◽  
Host Cells ◽  
Disease Spread ◽  
Structural Proteins ◽  
Unknown Etiology ◽  
Presenting Symptoms

By the end of 2019, pneumonia of unknown etiology occurred in Wuhan, China. Local hospitals started receiving patients presenting symptoms like dry cough, fatigue, and breathing difficulties, most of these patients were linked to the Huanan seafood market, Wuhan, China. The pandemic was afterward confirmed to be associated with a novel coronavirus. The virus spread quickly from Wuhan to other provinces of China, then from china to the rest of the world causing thereby one of the most brutal pandemics in the world’s history. SARS-CoV2 has a long incubation period ranging from 3 to 7 days and can go up to 14 days in some cases which makes the infection difficult to be detected early and subsequently the disease spread harder to be controlled. SARS-CoV-2 is a single-stranded RNA virus with 4 main structural proteins, the spike (S) glycoprotein, the small envelope (E) the glycoprotein, the membrane (M) glycoprotein as well as the nucleocapsid (N) protein. Current knowledge about the virus shows that it uses its spike protein to invade host cells, mainly the alveolar epithelial cells. The the lung is the most targeted organ among many other organs like the heart, small intestine, and kidneys that are vulnerable to SARS-CoV-2 infection. The COVID-19 is known to be mild in most cases, but in some cases, it can be severe or even fatal. In the severe cases, acute respiratory distress syndrome was reported, and the the capability of SARS-CoV-2 to infect many organs can lead to multiorgan failure and death. SARS-CoV-2 invasion induces several immune responses that could be efficient for infection clearance in mild cases, while in severe cases, the immune response dysfunctions can even contribute to the disease aggravation. Neither the the pathogenic mechanism by which SARS-CoV-2 infects host cells, nor the host immune response to its infection have been fully understood, hence further studies are needed to give further evidence about these two phenomena. Keywords: COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2, Coronavirus, Structural proteins, Immune response.

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