Mechanical and Physicochemical Properties of 3D-Printed Agave Fibers/Poly(lactic) Acid Biocomposites

In order to provide a second economic life to agave fibers, an important waste material from the production of tequila, filaments based on polylactic acid (PLA) were filled with agave fibers (0, 3, 5, 10 wt%), and further utilized to produce biocomposites by fused deposition modeling (FDM)-based 3D printing at two raster angles (−45°/45° and 0/90°). Differential scanning calorimetry, water uptake, density variation, morphology, and composting of the biocomposites were studied. The mechanical properties of the biocomposites (tensile, flexural, and Charpy impact properties) were determined following ASTM international norms. The addition of agave fibers to the filaments increased the crystallinity value from 23.7 to 44.1%. However, the fibers generated porous structures with a higher content of open cells and lower apparent densities than neat PLA pieces. The printing angle had a low significant effect on flexural and tensile properties, but directly affected the morphology of the printed biocomposites, positively influenced the impact strength, and slightly improved the absorption values for biocomposites printed at −45°/45°. Overall, increasing the concentrations of agave fibers had a detrimental effect on the mechanical properties of the biocomposites. The disintegration of the biocomposites under simulated composting conditions was slowed 1.6-fold with the addition of agave fibers, compared to neat PLA.

Download Full-text

The Use of Agricultural Waste in the Modification of Poly(lactic acid)-Based Composites Intended for 3D Printing Applications. The Use of Toughened Blend Systems to Improve Mechanical Properties

Journal of Composites Science ◽

10.3390/jcs5100253 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 5 (10) ◽

pp. 253

Author(s):

Jacek Andrzejewski ◽

Karolina Grad ◽

Wojciech Wiśniewski ◽

Joanna Szulc

Keyword(s):

Mechanical Properties ◽

Fused Deposition Modeling ◽

Agricultural Waste ◽

Research Work ◽

Charpy Impact ◽

Thermoplastic Starch ◽

Thermomechanical Properties ◽

Poly Lactic Acid ◽

Scanning Calorimetry ◽

Fused Deposition

The presented research focused on improving the mechanical properties of PLA-based composites reinforced with buckwheat husks (BH) particles. The research work was carried out in two stages. Firstly, the blend was prepared with the addition of polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT) and thermoplastic starch (TPS), manufactured by injection molding technique, then the selected materials were prepared with the addition of BH filler, and the samples were prepared using the fused deposition modeling method (FDM). All samples were subjected to the assessment of material properties. Thermal and thermomechanical properties were evaluated using differential scanning calorimetry analysis (DSC) and dynamic thermal mechanical analysis (DMTA). Mechanical characteristic was evaluated using static tensile and flexural measurements and Charpy impact resistance tests. The research was supplemented with scanning electron microscopy analysis (SEM). It was found that the addition of PBAT and TPS greatly improves impact strength and elongation, especially with the addition of reactive compatibilizer. As expected, TPS, PBAT, and BH reduced the stiffness of the composites during DMTA testing. The presence of BH particles in the polymer matrix was observed to improve the crystallization behavior of PLA. The optimal content of BH filler in the composite was found to be 10%, which allowed to preserve good mechanical properties.

Download Full-text

Development of three-dimensional printing filaments based on poly(lactic acid)/hydroxyapatite composites with potential for tissue engineering

Journal of Composite Materials ◽

10.1177/0021998320988568 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 002199832098856

Author(s):

Marcela Piassi Bernardo ◽

Bruna Cristina Rodrigues da Silva ◽

Luiz Henrique Capparelli Mattoso

Keyword(s):

Tissue Engineering ◽

Lactic Acid ◽

Fused Deposition Modeling ◽

Three Dimensional ◽

Poly Lactic Acid ◽

Scanning Calorimetry ◽

Three Dimensional Printing ◽

Fused Deposition ◽

Deposition Modeling ◽

3D Printed

Injured bone tissues can be healed with scaffolds, which could be manufactured using the fused deposition modeling (FDM) strategy. Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is one of the most biocompatible polymers suitable for FDM, while hydroxyapatite (HA) could improve the bioactivity of scaffold due to its chemical composition. Therefore, the combination of PLA/HA can create composite filaments adequate for FDM and with high osteoconductive and osteointegration potentials. In this work, we proposed a different approache to improve the potential bioactivity of 3D printed scaffolds for bone tissue engineering by increasing the HA loading (20-30%) in the PLA composite filaments. Two routes were investigated regarding the use of solvents in the filament production. To assess the suitability of the FDM-3D printing process, and the influence of the HA content on the polymer matrix, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were performed. The HA phase content of the composite filaments agreed with the initial composite proportions. The wettability of the 3D printed scaffolds was also increased. It was shown a greener route for obtaining composite filaments that generate scaffolds with properties similar to those obtained by the solvent casting, with high HA content and great potential to be used as a bone graft.

Download Full-text

Fused Deposition Modeling of Poly (lactic acid)/Macadamia Composites—Thermal, Mechanical Properties and Scaffolds

Materials ◽

10.3390/ma13020258 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 13 (2) ◽

pp. 258 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Xiaohui Song ◽

Wei He ◽

Huadong Qin ◽

Shoufeng Yang ◽

Shifeng Wen

Keyword(s):

Mechanical Properties ◽

Lactic Acid ◽

Fused Deposition Modeling ◽

Poly Lactic Acid ◽

Porous Scaffolds ◽

Compression Tests ◽

X Ray Diffraction ◽

Fused Deposition ◽

Deposition Modeling ◽

Structural Parts

In this work Macadamia nutshell (MS) was used as filler in fused deposition modeling (FDM) of Poly (lactic acid) (PLA) composites filaments. Composites containing MS both treated and untreated with alkali and silane were investigated by means of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-Ray diffraction (XRD), Thermogravimetry (TG), scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results showed that the treated MS composites had better thermal stability. Furthermore, compression tests were carried out. The PLA with 10 wt% treated MS composite was found possessing the best mechanical properties which was almost equivalent to that of the pure PLA. Finally, porous scaffolds of PLA/10 wt% treated MS were fabricated. The scaffolds exhibited various porosities in range of 30–65%, interconnected holes in size of 0.3–0.5 mm, micro pores with dimension of 0.1–1 μm and 37.92–244.46 MPa of elastic modulus. Those values indicated that the FDM of PLA/MS composites have the potential to be used as weight lighter and structural parts.

Download Full-text

Effect of layer thickness on irreversible thermal expansion and interlayer strength in fused deposition modeling

Rapid Prototyping Journal ◽

10.1108/rpj-05-2016-0077 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 23 (5) ◽

pp. 943-953 ◽

Cited By ~ 25

Author(s):

Anthony A. D’Amico ◽

Analise Debaie ◽

Amy M. Peterson

Keyword(s):

Mechanical Properties ◽

Thermal Expansion ◽

Flexural Strength ◽

Layer Thickness ◽

Fused Deposition Modeling ◽

Thermal Strain ◽

Content Type ◽

Fused Deposition ◽

Deposition Modeling ◽

The Impact

Purpose The aim of this paper is to examine the impact of layer thickness on irreversible thermal expansion, residual stress and mechanical properties of additively manufactured parts. Design/methodology/approach Samples were printed at several layer thicknesses, and their irreversible thermal expansion, tensile strength and flexural strength were determined. Findings Irreversible thermal strain increases with decreasing layer thickness, up to 22 per cent strain. Tensile and flexural strengths exhibited a peak at a layer thickness of 200 μm although the maximum was not statistically significant at a 95 per cent confidence interval. Tensile strength was 54 to 97 per cent of reported values for injection molded acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and 29 to 73 per cent of those reported for bulk ABS. Flexural strength was 18 to 41 per cent of reported flexural strength for bulk ABS. Practical implications The large irreversible thermal strain exhibited that corresponding residual stresses could lead to failure of additively manufactured parts over time. Additionally, the observed irreversible thermal strains could enable thermally responsive shape in additively manufactured parts. Variation in mechanical properties with layer thickness will also affect manufactured parts. Originality/value Tailorable irreversible thermal strain of this magnitude has not been previously reported for additively manufactured parts. This strain occurs in parts made with both high-end and consumer grade fused deposition modeling machines. Additionally, the impact of layer thickness on tensile and flexural properties of additively manufactured parts has received limited attention in the literature.

Download Full-text

Mechanical, Thermal and Microstructural Characteristic of 3D Printed Polylactide Composites with Natural Fibers: Wood, Bamboo and Cork

Journal of Polymers and the Environment ◽

10.1007/s10924-021-02356-3 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Karolina E. Mazur ◽

Aleksandra Borucka ◽

Paulina Kaczor ◽

Szymon Gądek ◽

Rafał Bogucki ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Fused Deposition Modeling ◽

Elevated Temperatures ◽

Fiber Type ◽

Mechanical Tests ◽

Degree Of Crystallinity ◽

Scanning Calorimetry ◽

Fused Deposition ◽

The Impact ◽

Different Levels ◽

Natural Fillers

AbstractIn the study, polylactide-based (PLA) composites modified with natural particles (wood, bamboo, and cork) and with different levels of infilling (100%, 80%, and 60%) obtained by fused deposition modeling were tested. The effect of fiber type, infill level and crystallization rate on the mechanical properties were investigated by using tensile, flexural, and impact tests. The materials were subjected to mechanical tests carried out at 23 and 80 °C. Differential scanning calorimetry were employed to analyze crystallization behavior of composite. Furthermore, hydrothermal degradation was performed, and its effect on the properties was analyzed. The addition of natural fillers and different levels of infilling result in a similar level of reduction in the properties. However, the addition of natural fillers resulted in a slightly lower drop than the lowered infilling rate − 40% and 50% for tensile strength, respectively. Moreover, it was found that, composites made of PLA are more sensitive to high temperatures than to water. The decrease in Young's modulus of PLA at 80 °C was 90%, while after 28 days of hydrodegradation ~ 9%. The addition of fibers reduced this decrease at elevated temperatures. Importantly, in the case of a brittle material such as PLA, the impact strength has been improved by 50% for composites with cork particles and other lignocellulosic composites remained at the same level as for resin. Generally, the thermal treatment of composites increased the degree of crystallinity of the materials, as reflected in the higher results of mechanical tests.

Download Full-text

Polymer Composites Used in Rapid Prototyping Technology

Advances in Manufacturing Science and Technology ◽

10.2478/amst-2019-0003 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 44 (1) ◽

pp. 15-20

Author(s):

Katarzyna Bulanda ◽

Mariusz Oleksy ◽

Rafał Oliwa ◽

Grzegorz Budzik ◽

Tadeusz Markowski

Keyword(s):

Mechanical Properties ◽

3D Printing ◽

Fused Deposition Modeling ◽

New Materials ◽

Fused Deposition ◽

The Matrix ◽

Molded Parts ◽

Deposition Modeling ◽

Injection Molded ◽

The Impact

AbstractNew materials and filaments dedicated to 3D printing were obtained using the fused deposition modeling method, and the properties of the produced materials were investigated. Polylactide was used as a polymer base for the assays because of the desired properties of the polymer, mainly biodegradability, and the matrix was refilled by the addition of metallic nanofillers, such as bronze, copper, brass, and steel. For the composites obtained, mechanical properties were investigated to determine the dependence of the obtained results on the content and type of filler used and on the method of fabrication of the fittings. It was found that the additives present in the polymer matrix increased the fluidity of the material. The best results were obtained for the compositions with bronze and steel in which the mass flow rate was 72.97 and 79.99 g/10 min, respectively. The filled material that had lower hardness was measured by Rockwell and the impact strength was measured by Charpy. In addition, it was found that injection-molded parts obtained much better mechanical properties than those obtained by 3D printing.

Download Full-text

The impact of process parameters on mechanical properties of parts fabricated in PLA with an open-source 3-D printer

Rapid Prototyping Journal ◽

10.1108/rpj-09-2014-0135 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 21 (5) ◽

pp. 604-617 ◽

Cited By ~ 190

Author(s):

Antonio Lanzotti ◽

Marzio Grasso ◽

Gabriele Staiano ◽

Massimo Martorelli

Keyword(s):

Mechanical Properties ◽

Open Source ◽

Process Parameters ◽

Computer Aided Design ◽

Fused Deposition Modeling ◽

Testing Machine ◽

Main Process ◽

Content Type ◽

Fused Deposition ◽

The Impact

Purpose – This study aims to quantify the ultimate tensile strength and the nominal strain at break (ɛf) of printed parts made from polylactic acid (PLA) with a Replicating Rapid prototyper (Rep-Rap) 3D printer, by varying three important process parameters: layer thickness, infill orientation and the number of shell perimeters. Little information is currently available about mechanical properties of parts printed using open-source, low-cost 3D printers. Design/methodology/approach – A computer-aided design model of a tensile test specimen was created, conforming to the ASTM:D638. Experiments were designed, based on a central composite design. A set of 60 specimens, obtained from combinations of selected parameters, was printed on a Rep-Rap Prusa I3 in PLA. Testing was performed using a JJ Instruments – T5002-type tensile testing machine and the load was measured using a load cell of 1,100 N. Findings – This study investigated the main impact of each process parameter on mechanical properties and the effects of interactions. The use of a response surface methodology allowed the proposition of an empirical model which connects process parameters and mechanical properties. Even though results showed a high variability, additional ideas on how to understand the impact of process parameters are suggested in this paper. Originality/value – On the basis of experimental results, it is possible to obtain practical suggestions to set common process parameters in relation to mechanical properties. Experiments discussed in the present paper provide a variety of data and insight regarding the relationship among the main process parameters and the stiffness and strength of fused deposition modeling-printed parts made from PLA. In particular, this paper underlines the shortage in existing literature concerning the impact of process parameters on the elastic modulus and the strain to failure for the PLA. The experimental data produced show a good degree of compliance with analytical formulations and other data found in literature.

Download Full-text

3D Printing PLA Waste to Produce Ceramic Based Particulate Reinforced Composite Using Abundant Silica-Sand: Mechanical Properties Characterization

Polymers ◽

10.3390/polym12112579 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (11) ◽

pp. 2579

Author(s):

Waleed Ahmed ◽

Sidra Siraj ◽

Ali H. Al-Marzouqi

Keyword(s):

Mechanical Properties ◽

Composite Material ◽

3D Printing ◽

Fused Deposition Modeling ◽

Testing Machine ◽

Silica Sand ◽

Fused Deposition ◽

Mechanical Properties Characterization ◽

And Control ◽

The Impact

Due to the significant properties of silica, thermostatics can be enhanced using silica-additives to maximize the quality of polymer compounds and transform plastics into tailored properties. The silica additives can enhance the handling and quality performance of composites and thermoplastic polymers due to their diverse potential. Besides, using silica as an additive in different characteristics can allow granulates and powders to flow easily, minimize caking, and control rheology. On the other hand, the eruption of 3D printing technology has led to a massive new waste source of plastics, especially the polylactic acid (PLA) that is associated with the fused deposition modeling (FDM) process. In this paper, the impact on the mechanical properties when silica is mixed with waste PLA from 3D printing was studied. The PLA/silica mixtures were prepared using different blends through twin extruders and a Universal Testing Machine was used for the mechanical characterization. The result indicated that increasing silica composition resulted in the increase of the tensile strength to 121.03 MPa at 10 wt%. Similar trends were also observed for the toughness, ductility, and the yield stress values of the PLA/silica blends at 10 wt%, which corresponds to the increased mechanical property of the composite material reinforced by the silica particles. Improvement in the mechanical properties of the developed composite material promotes the effective recycling of PLA from applications such as 3D printing and the potential of reusing it in the same application.

Download Full-text

Biodegradable Poly(Lactic Acid) Nanocomposites for Fused Deposition Modeling 3D Printing

Nanomaterials ◽

10.3390/nano10122567 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 10 (12) ◽

pp. 2567

Author(s):

Madison Bardot ◽

Michael D. Schulz

Keyword(s):

Mechanical Properties ◽

Lactic Acid ◽

3D Printing ◽

Fused Deposition Modeling ◽

Ecological Crisis ◽

Poly Lactic Acid ◽

Fused Deposition Modelling ◽

Fused Deposition ◽

Biodegradable Poly ◽

Deposition Modeling

3D printing by fused deposition modelling (FDM) enables rapid prototyping and fabrication of parts with complex geometries. Unfortunately, most materials suitable for FDM 3D printing are non-degradable, petroleum-based polymers. The current ecological crisis caused by plastic waste has produced great interest in biodegradable materials for many applications, including 3D printing. Poly(lactic acid) (PLA), in particular, has been extensively investigated for FDM applications. However, most biodegradable polymers, including PLA, have insufficient mechanical properties for many applications. One approach to overcoming this challenge is to introduce additives that enhance the mechanical properties of PLA while maintaining FDM 3D printability. This review focuses on PLA-based nanocomposites with cellulose, metal-based nanoparticles, continuous fibers, carbon-based nanoparticles, or other additives. These additives impact both the physical properties and printability of the resulting nanocomposites. We also detail the optimal conditions for using these materials in FDM 3D printing. These approaches demonstrate the promise of developing nanocomposites that are both biodegradable and mechanically robust.

Download Full-text

Mechanical Properties of FDM Printed PLA Parts before and after Thermal Treatment

Polymers ◽

10.3390/polym13081239 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (8) ◽

pp. 1239

Author(s):

Ali Chalgham ◽

Andrea Ehrmann ◽

Inge Wickenkamp

Keyword(s):

Mechanical Properties ◽

Heat Treatment ◽

Process Parameters ◽

Fused Deposition Modeling ◽

Poly Lactic Acid ◽

Three Point Bending ◽

Fused Deposition ◽

Before And After ◽

Deposition Modeling ◽

3D Printed

Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is one of the most often-used technologies in additive manufacturing. Several materials are used with this technology, such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA), which is most commonly applied. The mechanical properties of 3D-printed parts depend on the process parameters. This is why, in this study, three-point bending tests were carried out to characterize the influence of build orientation, layer thickness, printing temperature and printing speed on the mechanical properties of PLA samples. Not only the process parameters may affect the mechanical properties, but heat after-treatment also has an influence on them. For this reason, additional samples were printed with optimal process parameters and characterized after pure heat treatment as well as after deformation at a temperature above the glass transition temperature, cooling with applied deformation, and subsequent recovery under heat treatment. These findings are planned to be used in a future study on finger orthoses that could either be printed according to shape or in a flat shape and afterwards heated and bent around the finger.

Download Full-text