scholarly journals A Brief Review on the Prevalence, Diagnosis Prevention of Infectious Bovine Keratoconjuctivitis

2021 ◽  
Vol 3 (2) ◽  
pp. 42-49
Author(s):  
Wakgari Abirham Haile ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Pasteurella Multocida ◽  
Market Price ◽  
Hydrolytic Enzymes ◽  
Clinical Signs ◽  
Control Measures ◽  
Stress Factors ◽  
Bodyweight Loss ◽  
Subconjunctival Injection ◽  
Tall Grass ◽  
Loss Of Vision

This seminar review is aimed to provide information about the IBK which results in ocular pain and loss of vision that would result in the reduction of the market price of the affected animal. Infectious Bovine Keratoconjuctivitis (IBK) or ‘pink eye’ is a common and highly contagious ocular disease. The disease is caused by the bacteria family Moraxellaceae, genus Moraxella and species Moraxella bovis. M. bovis is a gram-negative rod. The occurrence and distribution of the disease are worldwide and the persistence of the disease from year to year is by means of infected animals, which can act as carriers. Transmission is unusual in the absence of flies and occurs generally in their presence. A number of factors such as tall grass, weeds, dust, face flies and ultraviolet radiation, and other stress factors contribute to the disease occurrence. The pathogenesis of IBK is likely associated with collagenase release from epithelial cells, fibroblasts, and neutrophils. Hydrolytic enzymes of M. bovis possess the ability to degrade lipids, mucopolysaccharides, and matrix proteins, which may contribute to corneal ulceration. The first signs of pinkeye are characterized by excessive tearing, blinking, photophobia, and swelling of the eyelids and conjunctiva. As the disease progresses, the ocular discharge becomes purulent. The disease is usually diagnosed with clinical signs like excessive lacrimation and culturing of the bacteria from ocular exudates. IBK is differentially diagnosed from M. bovis, Pasteurella multocida, IBRT, and Thelaziasis. Drugs may be delivered to the eye in several ways: subconjunctival injection, topical application, and systemic administration to treat the diseases. Vaccination and fly control are some of the prevention and control measures. This disease is economically very important which causes severe ocular disorder in cattle which may result in the suffering of the animal from pain and loss of vision thereby economic loss due to bodyweight loss by the stress from pain, inability to feed properly, and the blindness that reduces the price of sale. Therefore, it is recommended that the susceptible cattle should be housed to avoid exposure to UV radiation and the populations of face flies should be controlled to minimize the incidence and transmission of IBK.

scholarly journals Evaluation of the Frequency of Swine Enzootic Pneumonia in one Farm Based on Slaughterhouse, Clinical and Laboratory Monitoring

2021 ◽  
Vol 49 ◽  
Author(s):  
Janine Alves Sarturi ◽  
Carlos Augusto Rigon Rossi ◽  
Rodrigo Dalmina Rech ◽  
Analaura Bianchini Pinheiro ◽  
Kauany Moura Da Silva ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Pulmonary Emphysema ◽  
Pasteurella Multocida ◽  
Clinical Signs ◽  
Pneumonia Severity Index ◽  
Control Measures ◽  
Laboratory Monitoring ◽  
Enzootic Pneumonia ◽  
Mean Frequency ◽  
The Mean ◽  
Study Laboratory

Background: Swine enzootic pneumonia (SEP), caused by the bacterium Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, is one of the main respiratory diseases of pigs. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the frequency of SEP in one farm with an independent production system, low level of technification and high losses in the meat packing plant, based on slaughterhouse, clinical and laboratory monitoring.Materials, Methods & Results: This study consisted of three monitoring steps, divided into three periods: P1, P2 and P3. In the first step of the study, slaughterhouse reports were analyzed and slaughtering was monitored at one meatpacking plant in Santa Maria, RS, Brazil. The second step of the study started by drawing up a profile of the farm that supplied the pigs to the aforementioned slaughterhouse, after which clinical monitoring was performed on three occasions. The third step of the study (laboratory monitoring) involved collecting lung fragments containing suspected SEP lesions from the meatpacking plant and subjecting them analysis. The average measured enzootic pneumonia (EP) in P3 was 38.54% (P < 0.05) higher than in P1 and 29.79 higher than in P2. The mean frequency of pulmonary emphysema (PE) in P3 was 59.13% (P < 0.05) higher than in P1 and 48.04% higher than in P2. The mean number of lung adhesions (LA) did not differ statistically (P > 0.05) between P1, P2 and P3. As for the mean frequency of pulmonary hepatization (PH), P3 was 48.80% higher (P < 0.05) than P1 and 41.78% higher than P2. With regard to the mean frequency of craniodorsal lung lesions (CLL), P3 was 48.26% higher (P < 0.05) than P1 and 40.77% higher than P2. The mean frequency of disseminated lesions (DL) and the pneumonia severity index (PSI) showed no statistical difference (P > 0.05) between the three evaluated periods. On the other hand, in the finishing period (FP), the frequency of coughing and sneezing was 37.56% (P < 0.05) higher in P1 than in P3. The frequency of coughing and sneezing evaluated in the nursery phase (CF) did not differ (P > 0.05) between periods. The samples sent to the laboratory MicroVet tested positive for M. hyopneumoniae, Influenza virus and Pasteurella multocida capsular type A. In the samples sent to the laboratory LABAC, the mean PCRmo (PCR for identification of mollicutes) did not differ (P > 0.05) in the analyzed periods, although the presence of DNA from bacteria of the class Mollicutes was confirmed in the fragments. In addition, the mean results of PCRmy (PCR for identification of M. hyopneumoniae) also did not differ (P > 0.05), although they revealed positivity for M. hyopneumoniae. Discussion: In relationship to the mean frequency of PE in each analyzed period, our study revealed an increase in the number of pulmonary lesions at slaughter during the periods under analysis. This finding is in agreement with those of other authors, who explain that pneumonias is one of the main health problems for swine producers. Some lesions are identified more frequently in routine inspections in meatpacking plants, including pulmonary emphysema, lung adhesions and pneumonia caused by M. hyopneumoniae. In our study, we found that the clinical signs of respiratory distress decline between the periods under evaluation, but during slaughter, the lesions suggestive of SEP continued to show an upward trend, mainly because they were chronic. Other authors state that several control measures should be adopted to ensure good zootechnical indices, including vaccination, strategic medication and the reduction of risk factors, thereby minimizing the level of M. hyopneumoniae infection in the herd.

scholarly journals Novel multi-strain probiotics reduces Pasteurella multocida induced fowl cholera mortality in broilers

2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Rine Christopher Reuben ◽  
Shovon Lal Sarkar ◽  
Habiba Ibnat ◽  
Md. Ali Ahasan Setu ◽  
Pravas Chandra Roy ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Growth Performance ◽  
Feed Efficiency ◽  
Biochemical Parameters ◽  
Pasteurella Multocida ◽  
White Blood Cells ◽  
Clinical Signs ◽  
Basal Diet ◽  
Prostaglandin E ◽  
Fowl Cholera ◽  
Anti Inflammatory

AbstractPasteurella multocida causes fowl cholera, a highly contagious poultry disease of global concern, causing significant ecological and economic challenges to the poultry industry each year. This study evaluated the effects of novel multi-strain probiotics consisting of Lactobacillus plantarum, L. fermentum, Pediococcus acidilactici, Enterococcus faecium and Saccharomyces cerevisiae on growth performance, intestinal microbiota, haemato-biochemical parameters and anti-inflammatory properties on broilers experimentally challenged with P. multocida. A total of 120 birds were fed with a basal diet supplemented with probiotics (108 CFU/kg) and then orally challenged with 108 CFU/mL of P. multocida. Probiotics supplementation significantly (P < 0.05) improved growth performance and feed efficiency as well as reducing (P < 0.05) the population of intestinal P. multocida, enterobacteria, and mortality. Haemato-biochemical parameters including total cholesterol, white blood cells (WBC), proteins, glucose, packed cell volume (PCV) and lymphocytes improved (P < 0.05) among probiotic fed birds when compared with the controls. Transcriptional profiles of anti-inflammatory genes including hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF1A), tumor necrosis factor- (TNF) stimulated gene-6 (TSG-6) and prostaglandin E receptor 2 (PTGER2) in the intestinal mucosa were upregulated (P < 0.05) in probiotics fed birds. The dietary inclusion of the novel multi-strain probiotics improves growth performance, feed efficiency and intestinal health while attenuating inflammatory reaction, clinical signs and mortality associated with P. multocida infection in broilers.

scholarly journals The Interactive Effects of Cognition on Coping Styles among Chinese during the COVID-19 Pandemic

2021 ◽  
Vol 18 (6) ◽  
pp. 3148
Author(s):  
Zemin Cai ◽  
Shukai Zheng ◽  
Yanhong Huang ◽  
William W. Au ◽  
Zhaolong Qiu ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Educational Level ◽  
Coping Style ◽  
Preventive Measures ◽  
Coping Styles ◽  
Demographic Characteristics ◽  
Control Measures ◽  
Stress Factors ◽  
Interactive Effects ◽  
Positive Coping ◽  
Negative Coping

Background: The outbreak of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has seriously affected people’s life. The main aim of our investigation was to determine the interactive effects of disease awareness on coping style among Chinese residents during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: A total of 616 Chinese residents from 28 provinces were recruited to participate in this investigation. A questionnaire was used to collect demographic characteristics, cognition of COVID-19, and disease-related stress sources. Coping styles were assessed via the Simplified Coping Style Questionnaire (SCSQ). Results: The survey showed that the main source of information on COVID-19 was different in relation to gender, age, educational level, and occupation (p < 0.001). People’s knowledge of the disease, preventive measures, and stress factors were different in relation to demographic characteristics (p < 0.001). Compared with the baseline values, the scores of positive coping and negative coping based on SCSQ in relation to gender, age, educational level, and occupation were statistically significant (p < 0.001, except for participants older than 60 years). Different educational levels corresponded to statistical significant differences in positive coping (p = 0.004) but not in negative coping. Conclusions: During the pandemic, people with different characteristics had different levels of preventive measures’ awareness, which influenced their coping styles. Therefore, during public health emergencies, knowledge of prevention and control measures should be efficiently provided to allow more effective coping styles.

​​Differential Disease Resistance of Indian Native Chicken Breeds to Experimental P. multocida Infection

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
T.R. Kannaki ◽  
E. Priyanka ◽  
M. Abhilash ◽  
Santosh Haunshi
Keyword(s):  
Experimental Infection ◽  
Pasteurella Multocida ◽  
Clinical Signs ◽  
Mortality Rates ◽  
Susceptibility Pattern ◽  
Intranasal Route ◽  
Bacterial Diseases ◽  
Death Time ◽  
Native Chicken ◽  
Chicken Breeds

Background: Native chicken breeds are considered more disease tolerant than exotic chicken breeds especially for the bacterial diseases. Aseel, Ghagus and Vanaraja chicken breeds/ variety were evaluated for the disease tolerance/susceptibility pattern after experimental infection with P. multocida A:1 isolate. Methods: A total of 72 birds of three breeds viz., Aseel, Ghagus and Vanaraja (n=24 each) were divided into three groups. The birds were inoculated with 2.5x106 CFU/ml of virulent Pasteurella multocida A:1 isolate through intraperitoneal (I/P) and intranasal (I/N) routes at 12 weeks of age. Clinical signs, morbidity, mortality rates and lesions were observed in the infected birds. Result: The mortality rates were 83.3% in Assel breed against 100% in both Ghagus and Vanaraja breed in intraperitoneally infected groups. Upon intranasal infection, the mortality was 83.3% in Assel and Vanaraja breed against 100% in Ghagus breed. Aseel birds showed significantly better survivability and longer death time than Ghagus breed upon experimental infection with Pasteureall multocida A:1 isolate. Vanaraja breed showed tolerance comparable to Aseel in experimental infection via intranasal route.

Lungworms (Metastrongylus Spp.) Demonstrated in Domestic Pigs with Respiratory Disease - What was the True Relevance of that?

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Per Wallgren ◽  
Emelie Pettersson
Keyword(s):  
Respiratory Disease ◽  
Pasteurella Multocida ◽  
Ascaris Suum ◽  
Clinical Signs ◽  
Mycoplasma Hyopneumoniae ◽  
Disease Outbreak ◽  
Domestic Pigs ◽  
Faecal Samples ◽  
Routine Inspection ◽  
The Impact

Abstract BackgroundAn outdoor pig herd was affected by severe respiratory disease in one out of three pastures. At necropsy, Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae and Pasteurella multocida were detected in the lungs, as well as the lung worm Metastrongylus apri. The life cycle of Metastrongylus spp. includes earth worms as an intermediate host, and since domesticated pigs mainly are reared indoors lungworms has not been diagnosed in domestic pigs in Sweden for decades, not even in pigs reared outdoors. Therefore, this disease outbreak was scrutinised from the view of validating the impact of Metastrongylus spp..ResultsAt the time of the disease outbreak, neither eggs of Metastrongylus spp. nor Ascaris suum were detected in faeces of pigs aged ten weeks. In contrast, five-months-old pigs at the pasture with respiratory disease shed large amounts of eggs from Ascaris suum, whereas Ascaris suum not was demonstrated in healthy pigs aged six months at another pasture. Low numbers of eggs from Metastrongylus spp. were seen in faecal samples from both these age categories.At slaughter, seven weeks later, ten normal weighted pigs in the preceding healthy batch were compared with ten normal weighted and five small pigs from the affected batch. Healing Mycoplasma-like pneumonic lesions were seen in all groups. Small pigs had more white spot liver lesions, and all small pigs shed eggs of Ascaris suum in faeces, compared to around 50% of the pigs in the normally sized groups. Metastrongylus spp. were demonstrated in 13 of the 25 pigs (52%), %), representing all groups included.ConclusionAs Metastrongylus spp. were demonstrated regardless of health status, and in another healthy outdoor herd, the impact of Metastrongylus spp. on the outbreak of respiratory disease was depreciated. Instead, Metastrongylus spp. was suggested to be common in outdoor production, although rarely diagnosed. The reason for this is because they will escape detection at routine inspection at slaughterhouses, and that they appeared to generally not induce clinical signs of respiratory disease. Instead, a possible association with a high burden of Ascaris suum was suggested to have preceded the severe outbreak with respiratory disease.

scholarly journals An afebrile heartwater-like syndrome in goats

2013 ◽  
Vol 84 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Rhoda Leask ◽  
Kenneth P. Pettey ◽  
Gareth F. Bath
Keyword(s):  
Clinical Signs ◽  
Control Measures ◽  
Sub Saharan Africa ◽  
Limiting Factor ◽  
Febrile Reaction ◽  
Presumptive Diagnosis ◽  
Appropriate Treatment ◽  
Sub Saharan ◽  
Characteristic Features ◽  
And Control

Heartwater is a serious limiting factor for sheep and goat production in the major endemic area of sub-Saharan Africa and therefore most knowledge, research and control methods originate from this region. Whilst the usual or common clinical presentations can be used to make a presumptive diagnosis of heartwater with a good measure of confidence, this is not always the case, and animals suffering from heartwater may be misdiagnosed because their cases do not conform to the expected syndrome, signs and lesions. One aberrant form found occasionally in the Channel Island breeds of cattle and some goats is an afebrile heartwaterlike syndrome. The most constant and characteristic features of this heartwater-like syndrome comprise normal temperature, clinical signs associated with generalised oedema, and nervous signs, especially hypersensitivity. The presumption that the disease under investigation is the afebrile heartwater-like syndrome entails a tentative diagnosis based on history and clinical signs and the response to presumed appropriate treatment (metadiagnosis). The afebrile heartwater-like syndrome presents similarly to peracute heartwater but without the febrile reaction. Peracute cases of heartwater have a high mortality rate, enabling confirmation of the disease on post-mortem examination. Recognition of the afebrile heartwater-like syndrome is important to prevent deaths and identify the need for appropriate control measures.

scholarly journals Mycoplasma agalactiae in Dairy Goat Flocks Bred in State of Ceará in Association with Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis Virus

2018 ◽  
Vol 46 (1) ◽  
pp. 7
Author(s):  
Renato Mesquita Peixoto ◽  
Alice Andrioli ◽  
Raymundo Rizaldo Pinheiro ◽  
Francisco Selmo Fernandes Alves ◽  
Vanderlan Warlington Souza Dos Santos ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Milk Production ◽  
Clinical Signs ◽  
Small Ruminants ◽  
The State ◽  
Encephalitis Virus ◽  
Control Measures ◽  
Dairy Goat ◽  
Economic Losses ◽  
Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis Virus ◽  
Mycoplasma Agalactiae

Background: Contagious agalactia is an infectious disease caused by Mycoplasma agalactiae (M. agalactiae) that occurs in small ruminants leading to productive and economic losses. Due to the similarity of clinical signs presented in Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis (CAE), which is a viral disease, a differential diagnosis is important. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the presence of anti-Mycoplasma agalactiae antibodies in dairy goat flocks in Ceará State and possible correlation with CAE.Materials, Methods & Results: The research was performed in four mesoregions in Ceará State (Metropolitan Region of Fortaleza-MRF; Northeast Ceará - NeC; North Ceará - NC; Sertões in Ceará - SC), from which 16 productions located in 10 cities with the highest representativeness for goat milk production within the State or mesoregion were sampled. A total of 417 females and 69 males (486 animals) of breeds with dairy production aptitude, pure or crossbreed, maintained in semi-intensive or intensive systems, were tested. Blood serum was obtained by venipuncture of the jugular vein with vacuum pressure syringe followed by centrifugation at 1,500 g for 10min. Antibodies against the caprine arthritis encephalitis virus (CAEV) were detected with micro technique of agarose gel immunodiffusion (AGID) and Western Blot (WB). The anti-Mycoplasma agalactiae antibodies were detected with commercial kit of enzymatic immunoassay (IDEXX Laboratories™). Seroprevalence of M. agalactiae in dairy goat flocks in Ceará State was 0.62% (3/486). From the total of 16 visited productions, 18.75% (3/16) had seropositive animals for M. agalactiae located in MRF, NC and SC mesoregions. CAE was diagnosed in 56.25% (9/16) of productions with AGID and in 81.25% (13/16) with WB. In addition, 5.2% (25/486) of animals were seropositive for CAE with AGID and 16.6% (80/486) with WB. Animals that reacted positive for M. agalactiae were all females of pure breed with milk production aptitude in distinct mesoregions submitted to intensive rearing system. None of these animals was positive in neither test (AGID or WB) for CAE. Therefore, no correlation of results obtained in diagnosis of M. agalactiae by ELISA and CAEV by AGID or WB (P < 0.05) was identified. However, two out of three productions that were positive for M. agalactiae presented positive results for CAEV with frequencies of 10% and 20%.Discussion: Seroprevalence of M. agalactiae in Ceará State was low in comparison with other Brazilian states and even other countries. However, the presence of the pathogen in more than one mesoregion indicates that the disease occurs in different locations within the State. Therefore, flocks in Ceará are susceptible to the infection, which may be favored by uncontrolled commerce that occurs with deficient surveillance, associated with the importation of animals to improve flock genetic quality. The presence of the pathogen in dairy goats may contribute to significant losses in the local production. On the other hand, CAE was diagnosedin nearly all productions proving the dissemination of this lentivirus infection among dairy goat flocks in Ceará State. Although an association between these diseases was not identified, the presence of a retrovirus in the organism may favor co-infection with another micro-organism, promoting the deficiency in the immune system of the host. In conclusion, M. agalactiae is present in different mesoregions of the Ceará State and control measures should be adopted in short term to prevent pathogen dissemination and, consequently reduce economic and productive losses in the local dairy goat production. No correlation was identified between the prevalence of infection by CAEV and M. agalactiae in this study.Keywords: correlation, diagnosis, caprine lentivirus, mycoplasmosis.

Serology surveillance of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies among asymptomatic healthcare workers in Malaysian healthcare facilities designated for COVID-19 care

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yuan Liang Woon ◽  
Yee Leng Lee ◽  
Yoong Min Chong ◽  
Nor Aliya Ayub ◽  
Swarna Lata Krishnabahawan ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Clinical Signs ◽  
Signs And Symptoms ◽  
Healthcare Setting ◽  
Public Hospitals ◽  
Control Measures ◽  
Infection Prevention And Control ◽  
Personal Protection Equipment ◽  
Strict Adherence ◽  
The Past ◽  
Increased Risk

Abstract IntroductionHealthcare workers (HCW) are presumed to be at increased risk of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection due to occupational exposure to infected patients. We aim to determine the prevalence of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies among asymptomatic HCW.MethodsWe prospectively recruited HCW from the National Public Health Laboratory and two COVID-19 designated public hospitals in Klang Valley, Malaysia between April 13th and May 12th, 2020. Quota sampling was applied to ensure adequate representation of the HCW involved in provision of care for patients directly and indirectly. All participants had worked in the respective healthcare facility for at least 30 days prior study enrollment. HCW who were previously confirmed with COVID-19 infection or listed as “patient under investigation” were excluded. A self-administered questionnaire was used to capture sociodemographic information, history of contact with COVID-19 cases within the past month, clinical signs and symptoms and adherence to universal precautions. Blood samples were taken to test for anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies by surrogate virus neutralization test.ResultsA total of 400 HCW were recruited, comprising 154 (38.5%) nurses, 103 (25.8%) medical doctors, 47 (11.8%) laboratory technologists and others (23.9%). The mean age was 35±7.8 years, with females predominant (74%). A majority (68.9%) reported direct contact with COVID-19 patients, body fluids of COVID-19 patients and/or contaminated objects and surfaces in the past month within their respective workplaces. Nearly all claimed to adhere to personal protection equipment (PPE) guidelines (97%-100% adherence) and hand hygiene practice (91%-96% adherence). None (95% CI: 0, 0.0095) of the participants had anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies detected, despite 135 (33.8%) reporting respiratory symptoms one month prior to study recruitment. One hundred and fifteen (29%) participants claimed to have contact with known COVID-19 persons outside of the workplace.ConclusionOur finding of zero seroprevalence among asymptomatic HCW suggests a low risk of asymptomatic COVID-19 infection in our healthcare setting; which is at expected levels for a country with an incidence of 26 per 100,000. The adequacy of PPE equipment and strict adherence to infection prevention and control measures offers considerable protection during contact with COVID-19 cases and should be ensured to prevent future nosocomial transmission.

scholarly journals Diagnostics of main bacterial agents of porcine respiratory diseases complex (PRDC) using PCR detection of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae

2012 ◽  
Vol 49 (No. 2) ◽  
pp. 35-41 ◽  
Author(s):  
I. Holko ◽  
J. Urbanova ◽  
THolkova ◽  
V. Kmet
Keyword(s):  
Respiratory Diseases ◽  
Pasteurella Multocida ◽  
Respiratory Infections ◽  
Clinical Signs ◽  
Antibiotic Sensitivity ◽  
Mycoplasma Hyopneumoniae ◽  
Sensitivity Testing ◽  
Pcr Method ◽  
One Year ◽  
Porcine Respiratory

The main goal of our work is the presentation and analysis of incidence of porcine respiratory disease complex (PRDC) regarding bacterial agents in the territory of northern districts of Slovakia. Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae and other secondary bacterial causative pathogens of PRDC comprised 75.2% of all cases (98) with clinical signs of respiratory infections that we examined in the course of one year. We present also one of possibilities to the solution of problematic detection of M. hyopneumoniae which is, like the whole rank of mycoplasmas, very difficult to cultivate. This problem was solved by using the PCR method with the direct isolation of M. hyopneumoniae from lungs tissue. In antibiotic sensitivity testing of Pasteurella multocida and Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae resulted enrofloxacin as the most effective antibiotics in the therapy of PRDC regarding bacterial agents.in above mentioned territory.

scholarly journals Schmallenberg virus: a systematic international literature review (2011-2019) from an Irish perspective

2019 ◽  
Vol 72 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Áine B. Collins ◽  
Michael L. Doherty ◽  
Damien J. Barrett ◽  
John F. Mee
Keyword(s):  
Scientific Literature ◽  
Current Knowledge ◽  
Clinical Signs ◽  
Control Measures ◽  
Schmallenberg Virus ◽  
Transmission Risk ◽  
Surveillance Program ◽  
Emerging Viruses ◽  
Biting Midges ◽  
Irish Case

Abstract In Autumn 2011, nonspecific clinical signs of pyrexia, diarrhoea, and drop in milk yield were observed in dairy cattle near the German town of Schmallenberg at the Dutch/German border. Targeted veterinary diagnostic investigations for classical endemic and emerging viruses could not identify a causal agent. Blood samples were collected from animals with clinical signs and subjected to metagenomic analysis; a novel orthobunyavirus was identified and named Schmallenberg virus (SBV). In late 2011/early 2012, an epidemic of abortions and congenital malformations in calves, lambs and goat kids, characterised by arthrogryposis and hydranencephaly were reported in continental Europe. Subsequently, SBV RNA was confirmed in both aborted and congenitally malformed foetuses and also in Culicoides species biting midges. It soon became evident that SBV was an arthropod-borne teratogenic virus affecting domestic ruminants. SBV rapidly achieved a pan-European distribution with most countries confirming SBV infection within a year or two of the initial emergence. The first Irish case of SBV was confirmed in the south of the country in late 2012 in a bovine foetus. Since SBV was first identified in 2011, a considerable body of scientific research has been conducted internationally describing this novel emerging virus. The aim of this systematic review is to provide a comprehensive synopsis of the most up-to-date scientific literature regarding the origin of SBV and the spread of the Schmallenberg epidemic, in addition to describing the species affected, clinical signs, pathogenesis, transmission, risk factors, impact, diagnostics, surveillance methods and control measures. This review also highlights current knowledge gaps in the scientific literature regarding SBV, most notably the requirement for further research to determine if, and to what extent, SBV circulation occurred in Europe and internationally during 2017 and 2018. Moreover, recommendations are also made regarding future arbovirus surveillance in Europe, specifically the establishment of a European-wide sentinel herd surveillance program, which incorporates bovine serology and Culicoides entomology and virology studies, at national and international level to monitor for the emergence and re-emergence of arboviruses such as SBV, bluetongue virus and other novel Culicoides-borne arboviruses.

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