The Impact of the Essential Fatty Acids (EFA) in Human Health

Milk contains several important nutrients that are beneficial for human health. This review considers the nutritional qualities of essential fatty acids (FAs), especially omega-3 (ω-3) and omega-6 (ω-6) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) present in milk from ruminant and non-ruminant species. In particular, the impact of milk fatty acids on metabolism is discussed, including its effects on the central nervous system. In addition, we presented data indicating how animal feeding—the main way to modify milk fat composition—may have a potential impact on human health, and how rearing and feeding systems strongly affect milk quality within the same animal species. Finally, we have presented the results of in vivo studies aimed at supporting the beneficial effects of milk FA intake in animal models, and the factors limiting their transferability to humans were discussed.

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Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Inhibit the Function of Human URAT1, a Renal Urate Re-Absorber

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu12061601 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (6) ◽

pp. 1601 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Hiroki Saito ◽

Yu Toyoda ◽

Tappei Takada ◽

Hiroshi Hirata ◽

Ami Ota-Kontani ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Fatty Acids ◽

Human Health ◽

Serum Urate ◽

The Body ◽

Omega 3 ◽

Beneficial Effects ◽

Uricosuric Agents ◽

Transport Assay ◽

The Impact

The beneficial effects of fatty acids (FAs) on human health have attracted widespread interest. However, little is known about the impact of FAs on the handling of urate, the end-product of human purine metabolism, in the body. Increased serum urate levels occur in hyperuricemia, a disease that can lead to gout. In humans, urate filtered by the glomerulus of the kidney is majorly re-absorbed from primary urine into the blood via the urate transporter 1 (URAT1)-mediated pathway. URAT1 inhibition, thus, contributes to decreasing serum urate concentration by increasing net renal urate excretion. Here, we investigated the URAT1-inhibitory effects of 25 FAs that are commonly contained in foods or produced in the body. For this purpose, we conducted an in vitro transport assay using cells transiently expressing URAT1. Our results showed that unsaturated FAs, especially long-chain unsaturated FAs, inhibited URAT1 more strongly than saturated FAs. Among the tested unsaturated FAs, eicosapentaenoic acid, α-linolenic acid, and docosahexaenoic acid exhibited substantial URAT1-inhibitory activities, with half maximal inhibitory concentration values of 6.0, 14.2, and 15.2 μM, respectively. Although further studies are required to investigate whether the ω-3 polyunsaturated FAs can be employed as uricosuric agents, our findings further confirm FAs as nutritionally important substances influencing human health.

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POLY-COMPONENT FAT EMULSIONS IN THE PARENTAL NUTRITION OF PATIENTS IN THE INTENSIVE CARE UNIT

Pain anesthesia and intensive care ◽

10.25284/2519-2078.4(97).2021.248389 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 9-18

Author(s):

O.YU. SOROKINA ◽

N.V. MATOLINETS ◽

S.O. DUBROV

Keyword(s):

Fatty Acids ◽

Intensive Care ◽

Immune System ◽

Parenteral Nutrition ◽

Fish Oil ◽

Essential Fatty Acids ◽

Fourth Generation ◽

Fat Emulsions ◽

Anti Inflammatory ◽

The Impact

One of the main problems in the departments of anesthesiology and intensive care is the lack of energy in patients. In order to solve it, parenteral nutrition, which contains fat emulsions is prescribed for critical patients. It is known that fat emulsions consist of essential fatty acids which can have both pro-inflammatory (linoleic acid) and anti-inflammatory (linolenic acid) effects. In order to reduce the impact on the immune system, the use of alternative fat emulsions is recommended, as this may provide better clinical results. The first generation of fat emulsions consisted of soybean oil, but it was proven that this oil can increase the risk of purulentseptic complications. Second-generation fat emulsions contain medium-chain triglycerides, the metabolism of which can lead to acidosis, so their use is limited, especially in patients with diabetes. Third-generation fat emulsions contain olive oil, which reduces the risk of thrombosis, is considered immunoneutral and less sensitive to lipid peroxidation. Fourth-generation fat emulsions contain fish oil, which has anti-inflammatory properties and can reduce the duration of patients staying in critical condition. The most promising is the usage of balanced fats, among which there is a 20% SMOFlipid available in Ukraine. For patients who require parenteral nutrition, fat emulsions are an integral part of it, and for critically ill patients fat emulsions containing fish oil are recommended. However, it is recommended to assess baseline triglycerides prior to administration. Thus, lipids provide the delivery of fatty acids that affect important body processes, including metabolism, immune response, blood clotting. Alternative fat emulsions can be a better source of energy, also showing antioxidant effects and less suppression of immune system.

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Enhancing Omega-3 Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Content of Dairy-Derived Foods for Human Consumption

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu11040743 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 11 (4) ◽

pp. 743 ◽

Cited By ~ 15

Author(s):

Quang V. Nguyen ◽

Bunmi Malau-Aduli ◽

John Cavalieri ◽

Aduli E.O. Malau-Aduli ◽

Peter Nichols

Keyword(s):

Fatty Acids ◽

Human Health ◽

Dairy Products ◽

Essential Fatty Acids ◽

Fatty Acid Content ◽

Omega 3 ◽

Pufa Content ◽

Knowledge Gaps ◽

Main Challenge ◽

Long Chain

Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) are termed essential fatty acids because they cannot be synthesized de novo by humans due to the lack of delta-12 and delta-15 desaturase enzymes and must therefore be acquired from the diet. n-3 PUFA include α-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3), eicosapentaenoic (EPA, 20:5n-3), docosahexaenoic (DHA, 22:6n-3), and the less recognized docosapentaenoic acid (DPA, 22:5n-3). The three long-chain (≥C20) n-3 PUFA (n-3 LC-PUFA), EPA, DHA, and DPA play an important role in human health by reducing the risk of chronic diseases. Up to the present time, seafood, and in particular, fish oil-derived products, have been the richest sources of n-3 LC-PUFA. The human diet generally contains insufficient amounts of these essential FA due largely to the low consumption of seafood. This issue provides opportunities to enrich the content of n-3 PUFA in other common food groups. Milk and milk products have traditionally been a major component of human diets, but are also among some of the poorest sources of n-3 PUFA. Consideration of the high consumption of milk and its processed products worldwide and the human health benefits has led to a large number of studies targeting the enhancement of n-3 PUFA content in dairy products. The main objective of this review was to evaluate the major strategies that have been employed to enhance n-3 PUFA content in dairy products and to unravel potential knowledge gaps for further research on this topic. Nutritional manipulation to date has been the main approach for altering milk fatty acids (FA) in ruminants. However, the main challenge is ruminal biohydrogenation in which dietary PUFA are hydrogenated into monounsaturated FA and/or ultimately, saturated FA, due to rumen microbial activities. The inclusion of oil seed and vegetable oil in dairy animal diets significantly elevates ALA content, while the addition of rumen-protected marine-derived supplements is the most effective way to increase the concentration of EPA, DHA, and DPA in dairy products. In our view, the mechanisms of n-3 LC-PUFA biosynthesis pathway from ALA and the biohydrogenation of individual n-3 LC-PUFA in ruminants need to be better elucidated. Identified knowledge gaps regarding the activities of candidate genes regulating the concentrations of n-3 PUFA and the responses of ruminants to specific lipid supplementation regimes are also critical to a greater understanding of nutrition-genetics interactions driving lipid metabolism.

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Fatty Acids: Evolution in Relation to Neurobiology

Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology ◽

10.1139/y93-101 ◽

1993 ◽

Vol 71 (9) ◽

pp. 683-683 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

M. T. Clandinin

Keyword(s):

Fatty Acids ◽

Fatty Acid ◽

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids ◽

Acid Content ◽

Essential Fatty Acids ◽

Fatty Acid Content ◽

Chain Elongation ◽

Brain Membrane ◽

The Impact ◽

Long Chain

Metabolism of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids derived from 18:2ω−6 and 18:3ω−3 by chain elongation – desaturation is essential for synthesis of complex structural lipids, leukotrienes, thromboxanes, and prostaglandins. These essential fatty acids are required for normal function in developing tissues and appropriate maturation of a wide variety of physiological processes. During development, fetal accretion of long-chain metabolites of ω−6 and ω−3 fatty acids may result from maternal or placental synthesis and transfer or, alternatively, from the metabolism of 18:2ω−6 and 18:3ω−3 to longer chain homologues by the fetus. After birth the infant must synthesize or be fed the very long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids of C20 and C22 type derived from 18:2ω−6 and 18:3ω−3.Metabolism of ω−6 and ω−3 fatty acids utilizes the same enzyme system and is competitive. When levels of dietary ω−3 and ω−6 C18 fatty acids are altered, the levels of metabolites of these precursor fatty acids change in specific brain membranes, influencing membrane lipid dependent functions. For example, a diet unbalanced in very long chain ω−3 and ω−6 fatty acids may increase brain membrane ω−3 fatty acid content when 20:5ω−3 is fed, while decreasing membrane fatty acid content of the ω−6 series of competing fatty acids. As 20:4ω−6 is quantitatively and qualitatively important to brain phospholipid, significant reduction in brain levels of 20:4ω−6 may be less than optimal. The impact of these compositional changes on brain function is not yet clear.The authors in this symposium address how this general area of essential fatty acid metabolism is relevant to the evolution of man, growth and development of fish, function of the retina and neural tissue, cognitive development of infants, and infant nutrition.

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Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) as a Source of Essential Fatty Acids – A Biofortification Approach

Frontiers in Plant Science ◽

10.3389/fpls.2021.734980 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 12 ◽

Author(s):

Amod Madurapperumage ◽

Leung Tang ◽

Pushparajah Thavarajah ◽

William Bridges ◽

Emerson Shipe ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Fatty Acids ◽

Fatty Acid ◽

Human Health ◽

Cicer Arietinum ◽

Essential Fatty Acids ◽

Crop Improvement ◽

Food Products ◽

Nutritional Composition ◽

Plant Lipids ◽

Improvement Programs

Chickpea is a highly nutritious pulse crop with low digestible carbohydrates (40–60%), protein (15–22%), essential fats (4–8%), and a range of minerals and vitamins. The fatty acid composition of the seed adds value because fats govern the texture, shelf-life, flavor, aroma, and nutritional composition of chickpea-based food products. Therefore, the biofortification of essential fatty acids has become a nutritional breeding target for chickpea crop improvement programs worldwide. This paper examines global chickpea production, focusing on plant lipids, their functions, and their benefits to human health. In addition, this paper also reviews the chemical analysis of essential fatty acids and possible breeding targets to enrich essential fatty acids in chickpea (Cicer arietinum) biofortification. Biofortification of chickpea for essential fatty acids within safe levels will improve human health and support food processing to retain the quality and flavor of chickpea-based food products. Essential fatty acid biofortification is possible by phenotyping diverse chickpea germplasm over suitable locations and years and identifying the candidate genes responsible for quantitative trait loci mapping using genome-wide association mapping.

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Essential Fatty Acids: The Effects of Dietary Supplementation among Children with Recurrent Respiratory Infections

Journal of International Medical Research ◽

10.1177/030006059602400402 ◽

1996 ◽

Vol 24 (4) ◽

pp. 325-330 ◽

Cited By ~ 12

Author(s):

A Venuta ◽

C Spanò ◽

L Laudizi ◽

F Bettelli ◽

A Beverelli ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Fatty Acids ◽

Respiratory Infections ◽

Essential Fatty Acids ◽

Dietary Supplementation ◽

Double Blind Study ◽

Alpha Linolenic Acid ◽

Double Blind ◽

Commercial Preparation ◽

Recurrent Respiratory Infections ◽

The Impact

The impact of dietary supplementation with essential fatty acids (EFA) on recurrent respiratory infections (RRI) in children was evaluated by means of a randomized crossover double-blind study. Linoleic acid (596 mg/day) and alpha-linolenic acid (855 mg/day) as a commercial preparation or placebo (olive oil) were administered for two consecutive winter seasons (November to February, T0 – T120) to 20 children affected by RRI, aged between 36 and 49 months. Plasma levels of n-3 and n-6 metabolites increased after the administration of EFA. The number of infective episodes, days' fever and days' absence from school were reduced significantly during the observation period (extended from T120 to T180) in children receiving EFA supplementation. Our results suggest that n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids may play a favourable role in the defence mechanism of these subjects.

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The Slow Discovery of the Importance of ω3 Essential Fatty Acids in Human Health

Journal of Nutrition ◽

10.1093/jn/128.2.427s ◽

1998 ◽

Vol 128 (2) ◽

pp. 427S-433S ◽

Cited By ~ 147

Author(s):

Ralph T. Holman

Keyword(s):

Fatty Acids ◽

Human Health ◽

Essential Fatty Acids

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Impact of Arachidonic Acid and Docosahexaenoic Acid Supplementation on Tissue Fatty Acid Incorporation in the Young Pig (P09-009-19)

Current Developments in Nutrition ◽

10.1093/cdn/nzz033.p09-009-19 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 3 (Supplement_1) ◽

Author(s):

Kaylee Hahn ◽

Irina Dahms ◽

Christopher Butt ◽

Norman Salem ◽

Ryan Dilger

Keyword(s):

Fatty Acids ◽

Arachidonic Acid ◽

Food Intake ◽

Docosahexaenoic Acid ◽

Essential Fatty Acids ◽

Positive Influence ◽

Human Infant ◽

Total Fatty Acids ◽

Dietary Treatments ◽

The Impact

Abstract Objectives Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA) are conditionally essential fatty acids (FA) commonly supplemented in human infant formulas due to insufficient endogenous synthesis. Supplementation of these FA has been shown to yield FA profiles closer to those of a breastfed infant. The need for DHA supplementation in infant formula has been well-establish due to its positive influence on retinal and cognitive health. However, ARA supplementation recommendations have come under some scrutiny. This study aimed to use the neonatal piglet model to examine the impact of single and dual supplementation of ARA and DHA on tissue FA incorporation. Methods Forty-eight male pigs were provided one of four dietary treatments ad libitum (n = 12 per treatment) from postnatal day 2 to 30. Dietary treatments included the following target ARA and DHA levels expressed as a percentage of total fatty acids: Diet 1 – Control (devoid of ARA and DHA), Diet 2 – 0.8% ARA, Diet 3 – 0.8% DHA, Diet 4 – 0.8% ARA + 0.8% DHA. Growth and food intake were measured daily. Plasma, red blood cells (RBC), and prefrontal cortex (PFC) were collected at study conclusion for FA analysis. Results There were no significant differences (P > 0.05) between diet groups in food intake and overall growth. Pigs on diet 1 had lower (P < 0.001) ARA than those on diet 2 in the PFC, plasma, and RBC. Pigs on diet 3 had lower incorporation of ARA than those on diet 1 in the PFC (P < 0.001) and RBC (P = 0.03). Pigs on diet 4 had lower incorporation of ARA than those on diet 2 in the PFC (P < 0.001), plasma (P < 0.01), and RBC (P = 0.01). Pigs on diet 1 had lower (P < 0.001) DHA levels than those on diet 3 in the PFC, plasma, and RBC. There were no significant differences in DHA levels (P > 0.05) between diet 1 and diet 2 in PFC, plasma, or RBC. Pigs on diet 4 had lower incorporation (P < 0.01) of DHA than those on diet 3 in the PFC and plasma. Conclusions These results show that PFC, RBC, and plasma ARA and DHA levels are sensitive to dietary intake when compared to diets devoid of these fatty acids. Results also indicate that endogenous ARA levels in the PFC and RBC are reduced when only DHA supplementation is provided in the absence of dietary ARA, hence the supplementation of ARA when DHA is provided may be warranted for maintenance of ARA concentrations in these tissues. Funding Sources DSM Nutritional Products.

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Dietary manipulation to increase conjugated linoleic acids and other desirable fatty acids in beef: A review

Canadian Journal of Animal Science ◽

10.4141/a03-002 ◽

2003 ◽

Vol 83 (4) ◽

pp. 673-685 ◽

Cited By ~ 32

Author(s):

P. S. Mir ◽

M. Ivan ◽

M. L. He ◽

B. Pink ◽

E. Okine ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Fatty Acids ◽

Docosahexaenoic Acid ◽

Eicosapentaenoic Acid ◽

Human Health ◽

Vaccenic Acid ◽

Essential Fatty Acids ◽

Conjugated Linoleic Acids ◽

Feeding Management ◽

Epa And Dha ◽

Total Fat

The diet is the source of many essential fatty acids such as linoleic and linolenic acids for all mammals. These fatty acids either, as altered isomers or as other elongated products, have been found to provide unique advantages to human health. Currently two conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) isomers (cis-9, trans-11 C18:2; trans-10, cis-12 C18:2) and two elongated products of linolenic acid [eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5 n-3), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6 n-3)] have been recognized for their roles in maintaining human health. Consumers can obtain these functional fatty acids from beef if the feeding management of beef cattle can be altered to include precursor fatty acids. Diet, breed, and gender are important factors that affect total fat content and/or the fatty acid profile of beef with regard to CLA, EPA, and DHA. Diet provides the precursor fatty acids that are altered and deposited, and breed dictates, the amount of fat that is deposited. These fatty acids can be increased in beef by increasing the forage:concentrate ratio, inclusion of non-fermented forage, and supplementation with various oils or oil seeds. The CLA and vaccenic acid (trans-11 C18:1) concentration in beef was increased by feeding sunflower oil or seeds, linseed, and soybean oil supplemented diets, while cattle fed linseed and fish oil supplemented diets had increased concentrations of EPA and DHA. Although the concentration of these fatty acids can be increased in beef, there is a need to further the understanding of the mechanism by which they exert positive affects on human health. Key words: Cattle, beef, fatty acids, conjugated linoleic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid

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