Climate Change and Livestock Production: A Literature Review

Globally, the climate is changing, and this has implications for livestock. Climate affects livestock growth rates, milk and egg production, reproductive performance, morbidity, and mortality, along with feed supply. Simultaneously, livestock is a climate change driver, generating 14.5% of total anthropogenic Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions. Herein, we review the literature addressing climate change and livestock, covering impacts, emissions, adaptation possibilities, and mitigation strategies. While the existing literature principally focuses on ruminants, we extended the scope to include non-ruminants. We found that livestock are affected by climate change and do enhance climate change through emissions but that there are adaptation and mitigation actions that can limit the effects of climate change. We also suggest some research directions and especially find the need for work in developing country settings. In the context of climate change, adaptation measures are pivotal to sustaining the growing demand for livestock products, but often their relevance depends on local conditions. Furthermore, mitigation is key to limiting the future extent of climate change and there are a number of possible strategies.

THE REPRODUCTIVE PERFORMANCE OF THREE IMPORTED HOLSTEIN HERDS IN IRAQ

The reproductive performance of three imported Holstein herds in Iraq was investigated in a field study. For this purpose a total number of 889 cows and heifers from three dairy stations that had been on a poor fertility management were palpated rectally for pregnancy determination. Of these, only 289 cows (32.5 %) were pregnant and 541 (60.85 %) were not pregnant. Regarding the non pregnant cows, 385 cows (70.38 % of the non pregnant, 43.3 % of the total) had a normal genital tracts (normal uteri and functional corpora lutea), indicating that they were cycling; the rest had palpable pathological findings; 69 (12.6 % of the total non pregnant) had ovarian inactivity, 56(10.2%) had purulent metritis; 14 (2.55 %) had cervical fibrosis; 12 (2.19 %) had cystic ovary and only two cows (0.36 %) had a mucometritis. The present data indicate low reproductive performance of these herds. Causes of high conception failure in these herds are discussed.

Correlations of gestational hemoglobin, placental mineral elements and reproductive performances in pregnant sows

Iron status of sows has a great influence on reproductive performance. Iron deficiency reduces reproductive performance and newborn piglet survival rate of sow. The hemoglobin is a potential predictor for iron status of sows and is convenient for rapid detection in pig farms. However, the relationship between iron status, hemoglobin, placental trace elements and reproductive performance remains unclear. In this study, the hemoglobin and reproductive performance of more than 500 sows with 1 st to 6 th parities at different gestation stages (25, 55, 75, 95, 110 days of gestation) in two large-scale sow farms were collected, and content of placental Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu was analyzed. The results show hemoglobin of sows during pregnancy (d 75, d 95, d 110) decreased significantly (P < 0.001). As the parity increases, the hemoglobin levels of sows at d 25, d 55 of gestation and placental mineral element contents included Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu at delivery decreased (P < 0.05), while the litter size, birth alive and litter weights increased gradually (P < 0.001). Furthermore, hemoglobin during pregnancy had a negative linear correlation with litter weight and average weight (P < 0.05), higher hemoglobin at d 25 of gestation may reduce the number of stillbirths (P = 0.05), but higher hemoglobin at d 110 of gestation was tend to be benefit for the birth (P = 0.01). And there was a significant positive linear correlation between hemoglobin at d 110 of gestation and placental Fe and Mn levels (P = 0.002, P = 0.013). There was also a significant positive linear correlation among Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu in the placenta (P < 0.001). The levels of Fe, Zn, and Mn in placental at delivery were positive related to the average weight of the fetus (P = 0.048, P = 0.027, P = 0.047), and placental Cu was linearly correlated with litter size (P = 0.029). Our research revealed the requirements for iron during gestation were varied in different gestation periods and parities. The feeds should be adjusted according to the gestation periods, parities or iron status to meet the iron requirements of sows and fetal pigs.

Hormonal Management for the Induction of Luteolysis and Ovulation in Andalusian Jennies: Effect on Reproductive Performance, Embryo Quality and Recovery Rate

Two prostanglandins (luprostiol, LUP, and dinoprost, DIN) and two ovulation-inducing agents (human Chorionic Gonadotropin, hCG, and deslorelin, DES) were evaluated for luteolysis and estrus induction, and for ovulation induction, respectively, in embryo donor jennies. Twenty-six fertile Andalusian jennies were used. In Experiment 1, jennies (n = 112 cycles) were randomly treated with either LUP or DIN after embryo flushing. In Experiment 2, donors (n = 84 cycles) were randomly treated with either hCG or DES to induce ovulation. No differences were found between prostaglandins for all variables studied (prostaglandin–ovulation interval (POI), interovulatory interval (IOI), embryo recovery rate (ERR), positive flushing rate (PFR) and embryo grade (EG)). The ovulation rate was similar for hCG and DES (60.9% vs. 78.7%). However, the interval to ovulation (ITO) was affected (62.61 ± 7.20 vs. 48.79 ± 2.69 h). None of the other variables studied (ERR, PFR and EG) were affected (p > 0.05), except for embryo quality (p = 0.009). In short, both prostaglandins evaluated are adequate to induce luteolysis and estrus. Both ovulation-inducing agents hastened ovulation, but DES seems to be more effective than hCG. Follicular diameter affected the interval from treatment to ovulation, and high uterine edema was related to low embryo quality.