YAP/TAZ in Bone and Cartilage Biology

YAP and TAZ were initially described as the main regulators of organ growth during development and more recently implicated in bone biology. YAP and TAZ are regulated by mechanical and cytoskeletal cues that lead to the control of cell fate in response to the cellular microenvironment. The mechanical component represents a major signal for bone tissue adaptation and remodelling, so YAP/TAZ contributes significantly in bone and cartilage homeostasis. Recently, mice and cellular models have been developed to investigate the precise roles of YAP/TAZ in bone and cartilage cells, and which appear to be crucial. This review provides an overview of YAP/TAZ regulation and function, notably providing new insights into the role of YAP/TAZ in bone biology.

Developing a Reference Database for Typical Body and Organ Growth of the Artificially Reared Pig as a Biomedical Research Model

Objectives: The pig is a common model utilized to support substantiation of novel bioactive components in infant formula. However, reference ranges for outcomes to determine safety are unclear. Our objective was to use historical data to objectively define typical body and organ growth metrics of the domesticated pig in research.Methods: Twenty-two studies were compiled to assess typical growth of body and organ weights in young pigs. Metadata were organized to include milk replacer sources, bioactive components, sex, breed, source of herd, feeding regimen, and rearing environment. A combination of statistical models including simple linear regression and linear mixed effect models were used to assess typical growth patterns.Results: Over 18,000 data points from 786 animals were available. In general, minimal differences in the growth of pigs who were male and female, artificially- or sow-reared, or fed ad libitum- or by scheduled-feeding, were observed in the first 30 days of life (P > 0.05). A weight-for-age chart from reference pigs was developed to compare body weights of pigs demonstrating growth characterized as accelerated, typical, reduced, and failure to thrive to illustrate effects of dietary interventions. Distributions of relative brain, liver, and intestine weights (as % of total body weight) were similar between rearing environments and sexes. An alternative bivariate level approach was utilized for the analysis of organ weights. This approach revealed significant biologically-relevant insights into how deficient diets can affect organ weight that a univariate level assessment of weight distribution was unable to detect.Conclusions: Ultimately, these data can be used to better interpret whether bioactive ingredients tested in the pig model affect growth and development within typical reference values for pigs in the first 30 days of life.

Gene Duplication and Differential Expression of Flower Symmetry Genes in Rhododendron (Ericaceae)

Bilaterally symmetric flowers have evolved over a hundred times in angiosperms, yet orthologs of the transcription factors CYCLOIDEA (CYC), RADIALIS (RAD), and DIVARICATA (DIV) are repeatedly implicated in floral symmetry changes. We examined these candidate genes to elucidate the genetic underpinnings of floral symmetry changes in florally diverse Rhododendron, reconstructing gene trees and comparing gene expression across floral organs in representative species with radial and bilateral flower symmetries. Radially symmetric R. taxifolium Merr. and bilaterally symmetric R. beyerinckianum Koord. had four and five CYC orthologs, respectively, from shared tandem duplications. CYC orthologs were expressed in the longer dorsal petals and stamens and highly expressed in R. beyerinckianum pistils, whereas they were either ubiquitously expressed, lost from the genome, or weakly expressed in R. taxifolium. Both species had two RAD and DIV orthologs uniformly expressed across all floral organs. Differences in gene structure and expression of Rhododendron RAD compared to other asterids suggest that these genes may not be regulated by CYC orthologs. Our evidence supports CYC orthologs as the primary regulators of differential organ growth in Rhododendron flowers, while also suggesting certain deviations from the typical asterid gene regulatory network for flower symmetry.

Solving the Puzzle of Shape Regulation in Plant Epidermal Pavement Cells

The plant epidermis serves many essential functions, including interactions with the environment, protection, mechanical strength, and regulation of tissue and organ growth. To achieve these functions, specialized epidermal cells develop into particular shapes. These include the intriguing interdigitated jigsaw puzzle shape of cotyledon and leaf pavement cells seen in many species, the precise functions of which remain rather obscure. Although pavement cell shape regulation is complex and still a long way from being fully understood, the roles of the cell wall, mechanical stresses, cytoskeleton, cytoskeletal regulatory proteins, and phytohormones are becoming clearer. Here, we provide a review of this current knowledge of pavement cell morphogenesis, generated from a wealth of experimental evidence and assisted by computational modeling approaches. We also discuss the evolution and potential functions of pavement cell interdigitation. Throughout the review, we highlight some of the thought-provoking controversies and creative theories surrounding the formation of the curious puzzle shape of these cells.

Crumbs and the apical spectrin cytoskeleton regulate r8 cell fate in the Drosophila eye

The Hippo pathway is an important regulator of organ growth and cell fate. In the R8 photoreceptor cells of the Drosophila melanogaster eye, the Hippo pathway controls the fate choice between one of two subtypes that express either the blue light-sensitive Rhodopsin 5 (Hippo inactive R8 subtype) or the green light-sensitive Rhodopsin 6 (Hippo active R8 subtype). The degree to which the mechanism of Hippo signal transduction and the proteins that mediate it are conserved in organ growth and R8 cell fate choice is currently unclear. Here, we identify Crumbs and the apical spectrin cytoskeleton as regulators of R8 cell fate. By contrast, other proteins that influence Hippo-dependent organ growth, such as the basolateral spectrin cytoskeleton and Ajuba, are dispensable for the R8 cell fate choice. Surprisingly, Crumbs promotes the Rhodopsin 5 cell fate, which is driven by Yorkie, rather than the Rhodopsin 6 cell fate, which is driven by Warts and the Hippo pathway, which contrasts with its impact on Hippo activity in organ growth. Furthermore, neither the apical spectrin cytoskeleton nor Crumbs appear to regulate the Hippo pathway through mechanisms that have been observed in growing organs. Together, these results show that only a subset of Hippo pathway proteins regulate the R8 binary cell fate decision and that aspects of Hippo signalling differ between growing organs and post-mitotic R8 cells.

Organ geometry channels reproductive cell fate in the Arabidopsis ovule primordium

In multicellular organisms, sexual reproduction requires the separation of the germline from the soma. In flowering plants, the female germline precursor differentiates as a single spore mother cell (SMC) as the ovule primordium forms. Here, we explored how organ growth contributes to SMC differentiation. We generated 92 annotated 3D images at cellular resolution in Arabidopsis. We identified the spatio-temporal pattern of cell division that acts in a domain-specific manner as the primordium forms. Tissue growth models uncovered plausible morphogenetic principles involving a spatially confined growth signal, differential mechanical properties, and cell growth anisotropy. Our analysis revealed that SMC characteristics first arise in more than one cell but SMC fate becomes progressively restricted to a single cell during organ growth. Altered primordium geometry coincided with a delay in the fate restriction process in katanin mutants. Altogether, our study suggests that tissue geometry channels reproductive cell fate in the Arabidopsis ovule primordium.

Tree growth and drought impact the dynamics of C allocation and change the coupling between photosynthesis and respiration in stem and soil

<p>In-depth knowledge about carbon (C) flows within trees and from the trees to forest ecosystem via respiration is essential for accurate modeling of tree growth and C balance. However, significant gaps still exist in our understanding about how trees allocate C for growth and respiration of different tree organs, which makes it difficult to predict the response of forest growth to climate change. A powerful tool to study C allocation within trees is stable C isotope ratio (the ratio of <sup>13</sup>C to <sup>12</sup>C relative to a reference, noted as δ<sup>13</sup>C), as this signal is passed from C sources to C sinks with isotopic fractionation along the pathway. In this study, we monitored the δ<sup>13</sup>C signal of CO<sub>2</sub> fluxes of shoot (A<sub>canopy</sub>), stem (R<sub>stem</sub>) and soil (R<sub>soil</sub>) in a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) dominated boreal forest in southern Finland for summer 2018, which included a month-long dry period. We also traced the growth of current-year shoots, needles, stem, and fine roots (fibrous and pioneer roots) and the concentrations and δ<sup>13</sup>C of putative substrates (sugars and starch) in phloem and roots of Scots pine over the growing season. We calculated the correlations between substrate concentrations and respiration fluxes, as well as the correlations between δ<sup>13</sup>C of A<sub>canopy</sub> and δ<sup>13</sup>C of R<sub>soil</sub> or δ<sup>13</sup>C of R<sub>stem</sub> with varying time lags from 3 d to 14 d for different tree organ growth periods and the dry period. We found tight couplings between photosynthesis and respiration, when newly assimilated sugars were allocated to stem or roots for growth or for drought response. These couplings include: 1) a synchrony between fibrous root growth and the concentrations of bulk sugars and starch in roots, associated with increases in R<sub>soil</sub> under high root substrate concentrations; 2) promoted nighttime R<sub>stem</sub> under high substrate supply to stem, which is seen as increased phloem glucose to sucrose ratio; 3) shorter time lags between δ<sup>13</sup>C of A<sub>canopy</sub> and δ<sup>13</sup>C of R<sub>stem</sub> under higher stem growth demands; 4) shorter time lags between δ<sup>13</sup>C of A<sub>canopy</sub> and δ<sup>13</sup>C of R<sub>soil</sub> under drought stress than with no water stress. The time lags between δ<sup>13</sup>C of A<sub>canopy</sub> and δ<sup>13</sup>C of R<sub>soil</sub> or δ<sup>13</sup>C of R<sub>stem</sub> being not uniform further implies that tree C allocation patterns are dynamic over the growing season. In addition, the C allocation to stem and roots occurred after full expansion of current-year shoots or needles, reflecting a whole tree C allocation strategy for growth demands of different tree organs, which prioritizes the demands of source organs. We suggest that the dynamics of C allocation in response to tree organ growth and drought stress should be considered in whole tree C allocation models for projecting forest growth under climate change.</p>

Optimal BR signalling is required for adequate cell wall orientation in the Arabidopsis root meristem

The plant steroid hormones brassinosteroids (BRs) regulate growth in part through altering the properties of the cell wall, the extracellular matrix of plant cells. Conversely, cell wall signalling connects the state of cell wall homeostasis to the BR receptor complex and modulates BR activity. Here we report that both pectin-triggered cell wall signalling and impaired BR signalling result in altered cell wall orientation in the Arabidopsis root meristem. BR-induced defects in the orientation of newly placed walls are associated with aberrant localization of the cortical division zone but with normal specification of its positioning. Tissue- specific perturbations of BR signalling revealed that the cellular malfunction is unrelated to previously described whole organ growth defects. Thus, tissue type separates the pleiotropic effects of cell wall/BR signals and highlights their importance during cell wall placement.