Correction to: Total saponin from Anemone flaccida Fr. Schmidt abrogates osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption via the inhibition of RANKL-induced NF-κB, JNK and p38 MAPKs activation

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via the original article.

Total saponins from Oplopanax elatus Nakai: An optimization study of the extraction process using response surface methodology and its psychopharmacological activities

Background: Oplopanax elatus Nakai is an ancient angiosperm plant member. It belongs to the Araliaceae family and has biological activities similar to those of Panax ginseng. However, the psychopharmacological effects of O. elatus Nakai have not been characterized. Thus, in the present study, we determined the optimal process for extracting total saponins and then screened the psychopharmacological activities of O. elatus Nakai extract (ONE).Methods: A three-level Box-Behnken design with 3 variables was used to evaluate the treatment variables that influenced the total saponin content (TSC) extracted from O. elatus Nakai. ONE was orally administered to mice and drosophila to evaluate its psychomotor, sedative-hypnotic, anti-stress, and anxiolytic effects.Results: The optimal variables for ethanol extraction were 60 min, 70% ethanol, 30 g/mL and 80 °C, and the total saponin yield reached 18.06±0.17%. Treatment with ONE extended cold swimming endurance time, reduced anxiety-like behaviour, decreased spontaneous locomotor activity, prolonged sleep duration, and ameliorated the sleep-wake rhythm. The ginseng extract (GE) is characterized by low-dose excitation and high-dose inhibition of the central nervous system.Conclusion: Some of the properties of ONE and GE were not identical, but ONE has potentially psychopharmacological activities.

Comprehensive Metabolite Profiling in Genetic Resources of Garlic (Allium sativum L.) Collected from Different Geographical Regions

Garlic (Allium sativum) is the second most important Allium crop that has been used as a vegetable and condiment from ancient times due to its characteristic flavor and taste. Although garlic is a sterile plant that reproduces vegetatively through cloves, garlic shows high biodiversity, as well as phenotypic plasticity and environmental adaptation capacity. To determine the possible mechanism underlying this phenomenon and to provide new genetic materials for the development of a novel garlic cultivar with useful agronomic traits, the metabolic profiles in the leaf tissue of 30 garlic accessions collected from different geographical regions, with a special focus on the Asian region, were investigated using LC/MS. In addition, the total saponin and fructan contents in the roots and cloves of the investigated garlic accessions were also evaluated. Total saponin and fructan contents did not separate the garlic accessions based on their geographical origin, implying that saponin and fructan contents were clone-specific and agroclimatic changes have affected the quantitative and qualitative levels of saponins in garlic over a long history of cultivation. Principal component analysis (PCA) and dendrogram clustering of the LC/MS-based metabolite profiling showed two major clusters. Specifically, many Japanese and Central Asia accessions were grouped in cluster I and showed high accumulations of flavonol glucosides, alliin, and methiin. On the other hand, garlic accessions grouped in cluster II exhibited a high accumulation of anthocyanin glucosides and amino acids. Although most of the accessions were not separated based on country of origin, the Central Asia accessions were clustered in one group, implying that these accessions exhibited distinct metabolic profiles. The present study provides useful information that can be used for germplasm selection and the development of new garlic varieties with beneficial biotic and abiotic stress-adaptive traits.

Effect of extraction solvents on the phytochemical content and bioactivity of Momordica charantia Linn. fruits

Momordica charantia (M. charantia) is a herbaceous climber commonly found in Southeast Asia with therapeutic importance for various illnesses. This study focused on the effect of extraction solvents on saponins-containing compounds from M. charantia and their bioactivities. Different organic solvents including water, ethanol, ethyl acetate, a mixture of methanol-water and methanol-n-butanol were used in the extraction process. The total saponin content, total flavonoid and phenolic content for each extract were examined. In addition, the antioxidant capacity of these extracts were evaluated using both 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) Free Radical Scavenging Activity and 2,2’-azino-bis-3- ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid (ABTS) assay. Furthermore, a-amylase and lipase inhibition assay were carried out using an in vitro model. The result showed that methanol-n-butanol extracts exhibited the highest total saponin, flavonoid, phenolic content, and ABTS antioxidant activity compared to the other extracts. The a-amylase inhibition assay revealed that water extract and methanol-n-butanol extract from M. charantia contained potent a-amylase inhibitor. On the other hand, the ethyl acetate extract was found to have the most antioxidant capacities based on DPPH radical scavenging assay. The ethyl acetate extract also exhibited the highest inhibition of lipase activities. In conclusion, the methanol-n-butanol solvent was found to be the most effective in extracting saponin from M. charantia. The M. charantia extracts showed inhibition of a-amylase and lipase activities which may suggest the therapeutic potential of M. charantia for obesity and diabetes.

Growth and Ginsenosides Content of Ginseng Sprouts According to LED-Based Light Quality Changes

This study investigated growth and ginsenosides content of ginseng sprouts under various light spectra. One-year-old ginseng seedlings were cultivated under various light treatments including: monochromatic (red (R), green (G), and blue (B)), various RB and RGB combinations, white (fluorescent lamps (FL) and natural white (NW)), and supplemental far red (FR). R and high R ratio increased growth characteristics of ginseng sprouts (excepted for root dry weight). The replacement of G for B in RGB group and W group did not increase the growth, and supplemental FR increased shoot and root fresh weights, total fresh weight, and leaf area. R had 1.5 times higher photosynthetic rate compared to B and G, and R8G1B1 and R9G1B0 showed the highest values in RGB group; whereas the RB, W, and FR groups did not enhance photosynthetic rate. B and high B ratio increased shoot saponin and ginsenosides, total saponin and ginsenosides contents. Total saponin content in shoot was 4.4 times higher than that in root. The supplemental FR enhanced both total saponin and ginsenosides contents. In conclusion, NW + FR showed the highest total fresh weight, saponin and ginsenosides contents among all treatments, suggesting that supplementation of FR has a positive effect on ginseng sprouts grown in plant factories.

The levels of bioactive compounds found in raw and cooked Canadian pulses

The effect of cooking on the levels of bioactive compounds (oligosaccharides, polyphenols and saponins, and vicine/convicine for faba bean only) were examined in a wide range of Canadian pulses. The total oligosaccharide concentrations were reduced ∼40% for chickpea, 11–81% for lentils, 41–43% for faba beans, 10–51% for beans, and 20–44% for peas. Individual oligosaccharides, raffinose, ciceritol, stachyose and verbascose, increased or decreased in the cooked samples depending on each pulse sample. Cooking reduced the total polyphenol content by 13–25% for chickpeas, 0–83% for lentils, 47–54% for faba beans, 47–54% for beans, and 48–70% for peas. And, the total saponin concentrations were reduced by 11–30% for chickpeas, 0–40% for lentils, 32–46% for beans, 14–30% for peas and increased by 8–26% in faba bean. The vicine and convicine levels in faba bean were reduced by 26–38% with cooking. The reduction in bioactive compounds after cooking depended on the specific compound and specific type of pulse. This large analyses of 20 different pulse samples allows for comparison between and within different types of pulses.

Rhizosphere Microbiome is Associated with Yield and Medical Value of the Perennial Panax Notoginseng

Background: Rhizosphere microbiome play important roles in promoting plant growth. However, it is not well understood how rhizosphere microbiome were driven by medical plants during growth stages and whether they contribute the accumulation of medical values. Panax notoginseng is a perennial medicinal plant, which belowground biomass and saponin contents are the important indicators of its value. Here, we use high-throughput sequencing method to study the temporal dynamics of perennial P. notoginseng rhizosphere microbiomes and the relationship between the indicators and core rhizosphere microbiomes.Results: The results show that the diversity, composition and network structures of the bacterial and fungal communities are mainly driven by the developmental stages. And succession characteristics of bacterial and fungal diversity show similar parabolic patterns during the developmental stages. Enrichment and depletion of the bacterial and fungal communities are active at the 3-year root growth (3YR) stage. From samples collected at a large-spatial P. notoginseng production area at the 3YR stage, we obtained 639 bacterial and 310 fungal core operational taxonomic units (OTUs). Analysis of the data indicate that the microbiome diversity is related to the belowground biomass and total saponin contents. Some genera, such as Pseudomonas, Massilia, Sphingobium, and Phoma are positively correlated to the belowground biomass, and genera likely Staphylotrichum, Chaetosphaeria, and Podospora are positively correlated with total saponin contents. Additionally, we identified 36 microbial functions involving in plant-microbe and microbe-microbe interactions, nutrition acquisition, and disease resistance. They are related to belowground biomass and saponin contents. Conclusions: In short, this study provides a detailed and systematic survey of rhizosphere microbiome in P. notoginseng and reveals that P. notoginseng rhizosphere microbiomes are largely driven by the developmental stages, while the core microbiomes are related to the belowground biomass and saponins contents of the plant. The finding may enhance our understanding of the interaction between microbes and perennial plants and improve our ability to manage root microbiota for sustainable production of the herb medicine.