Charged Particles in Near-Earth Space

In this chapter we discuss the concepts that govern the motion of charged particles in the geomagnetic field and the principles how they stay trapped in the radiation belts. The basic particle orbit theory can be found in most plasma physics textbooks. We partly follow the presentation in Koskinen (Physics of space storms, from solar surface to the earth. Springer-Praxis, Heidelberg, 2011). A more detailed discussion can be found in Roederer and Zhang (Dynamics of magnetically trapped particles. Springer, Heidelberg, 2014). A classic treatment of adiabatic motion of charged particles is Northrop (The adiabatic motion of charged particles. Interscience Publishers, Wiley, New York, 1963).

Essay on the theory of who is God, the matrix particle and quantum stamens: in the formation of everything and the universe

Given that God is nothing absolute, the only eternally present, immutable and neutral element of any equation that can contain everything we can understand as dimensions, particles, waves, matter, energy, life; where without this force the universe and the reverse could never happen, being a single-hand, undeniable pathway, this essay aims to deal with considerations related to the God particle, as well as describe this particle, here baptized as Matrix Particle and Quantum Stamens (PM and EQ), about its behavior in space, which is intrinsic to the understanding of its existence. This theory is based on own observations and bibliographies already published based on studies on the understanding of what is the greater God and the demigods or galactic Gods, including an analogy of how the universes contain the god endorsed and other of lesser power energy, among other studies related to the theme that deal with the most basic particle to make up the universe, both in its matter, as forms of energy and even predicting the existence of antimatter. Thus, for better compression, I describe within this larger structure called “God”, which is where there are the fundamental particles, composed of six basic elements that we call in this function as “Quantum Stumers”, and an energetic particle with its own light that we call “Matrix Particle” because it is mainly the light of the universe, where without this radiant energy there is no motor life, which is what interests us. That said, in a few words, the results revealed that if the concepts of pmeeq’s form and performance are widely studied and understood, these data will enable an advance in terms of energy use, fuel production and even material transport.

Research on Optimization and Verification Method of Sensor Arrangement in the Chemical and Volume Control System

In order to avoid the nuclear accidents during the operation of nuclear power plants, it is necessary to always monitor the status of relevant facilities and equipment. The premise of condition monitoring is that the sensor can provide sufficient and accurate operating parameters. Therefore, the sensor arrangement must be rationalized. As one of the nuclear auxiliary systems, the chemical and volume control system plays an important role in ensuring the safe operation of nuclear power plants. There are plenty of sensor measuring points arranged in the chemical and volume control system. These sensors are not only for detecting faults, but also for running and controlling services. Particle swarm algorithm has many applications in solving the problem of sensor layout optimization but the disadvantage of the basic particle swarm optimization algorithm is that the parameters are fixed, the particles are single, and it is easy to fall into the local optimization. In this paper, the basic particle swarm optimization algorithm is improved by Non-linearly adjusting inertia weight factor, asynchronously changing learning factor, and variating particle. The improved particle swarm optimization algorithm is used to optimize the sensor placement. The numerical analysis verified that a smaller number of sensors can meet the fault detection requirements of the chemical and volume control system in this paper, and Experiments have proved that the improved particle swarm algorithm can improve the basic particle swarm algorithm, which is easy to fall into the shortcomings of local optimization and single particles. This method has good applicability, and could be also used to optimize other systems with sufficient parameters and consistent objective function.

Hierarchical Computational Anatomy: Unifying the Molecular to Tissue Continuum via Measure Representations of the Brain

This paper presents a unified representation of the brain based on mathematical functional measures integrating the molecular and cellular scale descriptions with continuum tissue scale descriptions. We present a fine-to-coarse recipe for traversing the brain as a hierarchy of measures projecting functional description into stable empirical probability laws that unifies scale-space aggregation. The representation uses measure norms for mapping the brain across scales from different measurement technologies. Brainspace is constructed as a metric space with metric comparison between brains provided by a hierarchy of Hamiltonian geodesic flows of diffeomorphisms connecting the molecular and continuum tissue scales. The diffeomorphisms act on the brain measures via the 3D varifold action representing "copy and paste" so that basic particle quantities that are conserved biologically are combined with greater multiplicity and not geometrically distorted. Two applications are examined, the first histological and tissue scale data in the human brain for studying Alzheimer's disease, and the second the RNA and cell signatures of dense spatial transcriptomics mapped to the meso-scales of brain atlases. The representation unifies the classical formalism of computational anatomy for representing continuum tissue scale with non-classical generalized functions appropriate for molecular particle scales.

An enhanced particle swarm optimization algorithm

<p>In this paper, an enhanced stochastic optimization algorithm based on the basic Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm is proposed. The basic PSO algorithm is built on the activities of the social feeding of some animals. Its parameters may influence the solution considerably. Moreover, it has a couple of weaknesses, for example, convergence speed and premature convergence. As a way out of the shortcomings of the basic PSO, several enhanced methods for updating the velocity such as Exponential Decay Inertia Weight (EDIW) are proposed in this work to construct an Enhanced PSO (EPSO) algorithm. The suggested algorithm is numerically simulated established on five benchmark functions with regards to the basic PSO approaches. The performance of the EPSO algorithm is analyzed and discussed based on the test results.</p>

Experimental study on evolution law for particle breakage during coal and gas outburst

Coal and gas outburst is a dynamic phenomenon in underground mining engineering that is often accompanied by the throwing and breakage of large amounts of coal. To study the crushing effect and its evolution during outbursts, coal samples with different initial particle sizes were evaluated using a coal and gas outburst testing device. Three basic particle sizes, 5–10 mesh, 10–40 mesh, and 40–80 mesh, as well as some mixed particle size coal samples were used in tests. The coal particles were pre-compacted at a pressure of 4 MPa before the tests. The vertical ground stress (4 MPa) and the horizontal ground stress (2.4 MPa) were initially simulated by the hydraulic system and maintained throughout. During the tests, the samples were first placed in a vacuum for 3 h, and the coal was filled with gas (CH4) for an adsorption time of approximately 5 h. Finally, the gas valve was shut off and the coal and gas outburst was induced by quickly opening the outburst hole. The coal particles that were thrown out by the outburst test device were collected and screened based on the particle size. The results show the following. (1) Smaller particle sizes have a worse crushing effect than larger sizes. Furthermore, the well-graded coal particles are weakly broken during the outburst process. (2) As the number of repeated tests increases, the relative breakage index grows; however, the increment of growth decreases after each test, showing that further fragmentation becomes increasingly difficult.

The Algorithm of Information and the Origin of Basic Particles

Everything is information because everything will inform you about itself through our senses, there is no other way to say it when discussing the philosophy of science. All information has similar basic characteristics including randomness. The reality of randomness gave the concepts to the theory of the algorithm of information the basis of all degrees of randomness. Everything is about relationships; the algorithm of information is the tool existence uses to determine the chances of relationships. If everything is about relationships, then relationships must begin with the particles. Not the basic particles having relationships with other basic particles as it was first postulated. The basic particle itself must be the result of an event and thus a relationship, it was not always there. This paper aims to shed some light on the question of where do particles come from? What relationships led to the event that created elementary particles?

Belle2Lab - An Interactive Tool for a Public Analysis of the Belle II Data

Several data samples from a Belle II experiment will be available to the public as a part of the experiment outreach activities. A Belle2Lab tool is designed as an interactive graphical user interface to reconstructed particles, offering users basic particle selection tools. The tool is based on a Blockly JavaScript graphical code generator and can be run in an HTML5 capable browser. It allows a description of different particle decays by selecting and combining particles from the data file, easy histogramming tools and a display of the results by using the JSROOT library. During the analysis, the user has the possibility to apply cuts to the selected variables. A pseudo-code generated by the user interface is sent to the execution server which returns the histograms, that can also be interactively fitted. The Belle2Lab is accessible in two ways: hosted on a single public web server or as a part of the virtual appliance which consists of an Ubuntu 16.04 LTS operating system, a data sample, an analysis framework, and a private web server. The public web server can be used for a single access while the virtual appliance is more suited for a use in a classroom.

The Physical Nature of Velocity

Matter and energy are made up of the same basic particles. Why, then, is there a significant difference between matter and energy? This is because their basic particle compositions differ. The basic particle is the basic unit of mass and energy. Mass and energy conservations are essentially basic particle conversions. The basic particle is a vector, moving at the maximum velocity of the universe; however, after a substance tangibly solidifies, this velocity becomes zero. The velocity of a moving object is, thus, the ratio between the basic particles contributing to energy and those contributing to mass, and the direction of its velocity is determined by the basic particle directions. Electrons, photons, neutrons, protons, neutrinos, and other microscopic particles consist of basic particles. The total mass of a moving body increases with increasing velocity. This added mass is composed of basic particles provided by an external system. As relativity is a mathematical model, its equations may satisfy mathematical principles even though some of them may not represent objective physical facts; instead, these may simply be mathematical solutions without physical meanings.