Biology, ecology and management perspectives of overexploited deposit-feeders sea cucumbers, with focus on Holothuria tubulosa (Gmelin, 1788)

The increasing harvesting of low trophic level organisms is rising concern about the possible consequences on the ecosystem functioning. In particular, the continuous demand of sea cucumbers from the international market lead to the overexploitation of either traditionally harvested and new target species, including the Mediterranean ones. Sea cucumbers are mostly deposit feeders able to consume sedimentary organic matter and, thus, are ideal candidate for the remediation of eutrophicated sediments, like those beneath aquaculture plants. Breeding and restocking of overexploited sea cucumbers populations are well established practice for Indo-Pacific species like Holothuria scabra and Apostichopus japonicus. Some attempts have been also made for the Mediterranean species Holothuria tubulosa, but, so far, the adaptation of protocols used for other species presented several issues. We here summarize narratively the available information about sea cucumbers rearing protocols with the aim of identifying their major flaws and gaps of knowledge and fostering research about new triggers for spawning and feasible protocols to reduce the high mortality of post-settlers.

First faunistic results on Valencia (Cresques) Seamount, with some ecological considerations

The living and dead fauna of Valencia Seamount, a deep promontory in the middle of the Balearic Basin which summit is at ca. 1100 m depth, is described by first time based in a rock dredge perfomed in a sedimentary area of the summit Mount. Surface-feeder polychaetes (the Paraonidae Levinsenia gracilis and Terebellidae as dominant), and taxodont bivalves (Ledella messanensis and Yoldiella ovulum) were the main species of benthos. We found alive remains of the bamboo coral Isidella elongata, a vulnerable, habitat-forming species in the deep Mediterranean. Benthos density was low (0.6 organisms/2 dm3 mud). Thanatocoenosis evidenced a rather moderate diversity of benthic bivalves (11 species) and gastropods (9 species) also dominated by surface deposit feeders. Fish (identified/quantified from sedimented otoliths) showed diversified and abundant mesopelagic fauna, mainly Myctophidae. More interestingly, we highlighted among benthopelagic fish the occurrence of recruits of Merluccius merluccius, Micromesistius poutassou, or Hymenocephalus italicus, all species that live in the neighboring slopes of the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands at quite shallower depths (at 100-700 m) than their distribution in the Valencia Seamount summit (1102–1130 m) based on the deposited otoliths found. Some ecological aspects were discussed and the necessity to consider the deep Valencia Seamount as a potential area that should be under protection.

Abyssal deposit feeders are secondary consumers of detritus and rely on nutrition derived from microbial communities in their guts

Trophic ecology of detrital-based food webs is still poorly understood. Abyssal plains depend entirely on detritus and are among the most understudied ecosystems, with deposit feeders dominating megafaunal communities. We used compound-specific stable isotope ratios of amino acids (CSIA-AA) to estimate the trophic position of three abundant species of deposit feeders collected from the abyssal plain of the Northeast Pacific (Station M; ~ 4000 m depth), and compared it to the trophic position of their gut contents and the surrounding sediments. Our results suggest that detritus forms the base of the food web and gut contents of deposit feeders have a trophic position consistent with primary consumers and are largely composed of a living biomass of heterotrophic prokaryotes. Subsequently, deposit feeders are a trophic level above their gut contents making them secondary consumers of detritus on the abyssal plain. Based on δ13C values of essential amino acids, we found that gut contents of deposit feeders are distinct from the surrounding surface detritus and form a unique food source, which was assimilated by the deposit feeders primarily in periods of low food supply. Overall, our results show that the guts of deposit feeders constitute hotspots of organic matter on the abyssal plain that occupy one trophic level above detritus, increasing the food-chain length in this detritus-based ecosystem.

Macrozoobenthos in mid-mountain lakes of river Multa basin (Republic of Altai)

In August 2020, taxonomic composition and quantitative characteristics of zoobenthos from 4 lakes located in the upper reaches of the R. Multa basin (the R. Ob basin) were studied. Because of the basin inaccessibility the hydrobiological information about these lakes was previously fragmentary or absent at all. The data on macrozoobenthos composition and its structure were not available. In these lakes, 49 species of benthic invertebrates from 7 classes were identified, i.e. Demospongiae (1), Turbellaria (1), Oligochaeta (3), Gastropoda (4), Euchelicerata (1), Crustacea (1) and Insecta (38). Among insects, Diptera were the most diverse (22 chironomids out of 23 species). Beetles, mayflies and caddisflies were also found. In terms of species number, abundance and biomassб chironomids were the dominant taxonomic group in the studied lakes. The species composition of macrozoobenthos consisted of species widely spread in the Palearctic and Holarctic. The investigated lakes differed in species composition of zoobenthos. When comparing the species lists of benthic animals, lakes Sredneye Multinskoye and Poperechnoye were similar at most, whereas the fauna of Lake Nizhneye Multinskoye was the most original. The studied water bodies were distinguished by poor macroinvertebrate development and thereby corresponded to ultra-oligotrophic and oligotrophic reservoir types. The oligochaete index by Goodnight and Whitley corresponded to quality class I–II, i.e. “conditionally clean” and “slightly polluted waters”. We defined the trophic structure of macrozoobenthos of lakes and identified five main trophic groups of hydrobionts (Deposit feeders, Сollectors-detritus feeders and facultative filter feeders, Collectors-obligate filter feeders, Shredders, Predators), among which Collectors-detritus feeders and facultative filter feeders dominated.

Nematodes as bio-indicators of physical disturbance of marine sediments following polychaete bait harvesting

Sediment disturbance in marine environments is caused by activities including polychaete bait harvesting, trawling, dredging, sediment erosion and treading. These activities affect the benthic communities by changing the densities, community assemblage and diversity. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of nematodes as indicators of sediments disturbance following polychaete bait harvesting. The study was conducted in three sites experiencing different bait harvesting intensities in Mida Creek, Kenya. Sediment samples were collected from the mudflats during low tide, preserved in 5% formalin and transported to the laboratory for processing and identification of nematodes. The highly disturbed site recorded the lowest nematode genus richness while the less disturbed sites had the highest. Overall, the most abundant nematode genera in the non-disturbed (Dabaso) and less disturbed sites (Kirepwe) were selective deposit feeders (Spirinia and Terschellingia), while most disturbed sites (e.g. Mayonda) had predators/omnivores (Pheronus, Aporcelaimellus) and selected members of the genus Spirinia. The disturbed site was characterised by low nematode diversity (H’) and low dominance (D) while the non-disturbed and less disturbed sites had higher diversity and dominance. Clearly, nematode community assemblage, diversity and feeding guilds changed following disturbance to a low diversity that favoured higher proportions of predator/omnivore taxa.

First description of deep benthic habitats and communities of oceanic islands and seamounts of the Nazca Desventuradas Marine Park, Chile

Seamounts and oceanic islands of the Chilean Exclusive Economic Zone at the intersection of the Nazca and Salas y Gómez ridges lie within one of the least explored areas in the world. The sparse information available, mainly for seamounts outside Chilean jurisdiction and shallow-water fauna of the Desventuradas Islands, suggests that the area is a hotspot of endemism. This apparent uniqueness of the fauna motivated the creation of the large Nazca-Desventuradas Marine Park (NDMP, ~ 300,000 km2) around the small islands San Felix and San Ambrosio in 2015. We report for the first time a detailed description of benthic microhabitats (i.e., centimeter to meter scale), macrohabitats (i.e., meter to kilometer-scale) and associated megafauna within the NDMP. Descriptions were based on analysis of fauna collected by trawling and ROV video observations from ~ 50 to 370 m depth. Rocky, coarse sand and silty sediment bottom habitats were observed at island slopes. In contrast, rocky and coarse sandy bottom habitats with a predominance of rhodoliths, thanatocoenosis, and other biogenic components were observed at seamounts. Mobile fauna and predators dominated the oceanic islands and nearby seamounts, whereas seamounts farther from the islands were dominated by sessile and hemisessile fauna that were mainly suspension and deposit feeders. Based on the register of 118 taxonomic units, our results provide an expanded and updated baseline for the benthic biodiversity of NDMP habitats, which seemed pristine, without evidence of trawling or anthropogenic debris.

Evaluation of Microplastics Ingested by Sea Cucumber Stichopus Horrens in Pulau Pangkor, Perak, Malaysia

The widespread presence of microplastics has caused significant concerns on their potential effects on marine ecosystems. Microplastics are classified as plastic products of less than 5 mm in size and are known to be one of the most dangerous aquatic debris to marine species. Sea cucumbers are deposit-feeders living in sediment regions that may collect microplastics in low-energy environments. This research aims to evaluate the types of microplastic isolated from the intestine of Stichopus horrens in Malaysia. Sea cucumber samples collected from Pulau Pangkor, Malaysia were dissected, and their intestines were collected for digestion. Microplastics were extracted using NaOH and filtered using filter paper. Microplastic identification was conducted on the based on the physical characteristics (colour, shape, size) and chemical characterisation was evaluated using FTIR for polymer functional groups. A total of 1446 microplastics were found in Stichopus horrens. Among various types and colors, fibre (90%) and black (59%) were dominant amongst the various particles identified. The majority of microplastics sizes were 0.51 µm and 1–2 µm. Two polymer materials were identified, namely polyethylene and poly(methyl methacrylate). As a conclusion, the findings of the study will serve as primary data for pollution indicators in respective islands.

Soft-bottom macrofauna along the coast of Bahía de Los Ángeles, Gulf of California, during the summer and winter

This work constitutes an effort to evaluate benthic biodiversity in Bahía de Los Ángeles, Gulf of California, Mexico. To characterize macrofauna at the family level, 2 sampling campaigns took place during summer 2013 and winter 2014 at 6 coastal stations. A total of 18,403 invertebrates were collected, 7,880 in summer and 10,523 in winter. These invertebrates were grouped into 6 phyla and 110 families, comprising 39 mollusks, 33 crustaceans, 30 polychaetes, 5 echinoderms, 2 cnidarians, and 1 cephalochordate. In both sampling periods, mollusks were the dominant group, especially in summer, followed by polychaetes and crustaceans, which were more abundant in winter. Ten new records were established for the area. The most abundant trophic groups were deposit feeders and carnivores. This research could be used to evaluate future changes in benthic assemblages in Bahía de Los Ángeles.

On the Systematics and Biodiversity of the Opheliidae and Scalibregmatidae

In this paper we review the systematics, diversity, and ecology of two related annelid families: Opheliidae Malmgren, 1867 and Scalibregmatidae Malmgren, 1867. Opheliids are deposit-feeders and that are mainly found as burrowers in sandy sediments. Morphologically, opheliids are characterized by the smooth cuticle, as well as the presence of a conspicuous ventral groove, reduced parapodia, and a tubular-shaped structure often projecting from the posterior end. Scalibregmatids are also deposit-feeders, but compared to opheliids, they have a characteristic arenicoliform body, a T-shaped anterior end and a glandular, reticulated epidermis. For each family, we summarize the available information about the evolutionary relationships, taxonomic history, geographical distribution, ecological preferences and diversity of life strategies along with the techniques most commonly used for their study. By highlighting the main gaps in knowledge on each of these topics, this review ultimately aims at stimulating further research into members of these two families in the future.

The Terebelliformia-Recent Developments and Future Directions

Terebelliformia comprises a large group of sedentary polychaetes which live from the intertidal to the deep sea. The majority live in tubes and are selective deposit feeders. This study synthesises the current knowledge of this group, including their distribution, in the different biogeographic regions. We highlight the new methodologies being used to describe them and the resolution of species complexes occurring in the group. The main aim of this review is to highlight the knowledge gaps and to stimulate research in those directions, which will allow for knowledge of their distribution and abundances to be used by ecologists and managers.