The Effects of Caloric Restriction and/or Intermittent Fasting on Bone Health

This mini-review summarizes the available information regarding the impact of caloric restriction (CR) and/or intermittent fasting (IF) on bone health. CR and IF are dietary interventions used in rehabilitative healthcare for augmenting weight loss and also proposed for recovery of conditions such as stroke and heart failure. CR restricts the total number of calories rather than different food groups or periods of eating. In contrast, IF severely restricts caloric intake for a period of time followed by a period of ad libitum intake. Here, we discuss the available information regarding the impact of these rehabilitation diets on bone metabolism, highlighting areas of consistency and discrepancy and suggesting future areas of study to advance the understanding of CR and/or IF on bone health.

Effects of Wet and Dry Intermittent Fasting on Weight and Cardiovascular Risk Indicators

Intermittent fasting (IF) has two broad types: wet (with water) and dry (without water) fasting. Studies suggest that both are effective for reducing weight and for promoting overall metabolic well-being; however, their relative efficacy is not yet established. The study was a 9-day cross-over clinical trial with the purpose to compare the effectiveness of wet and dry fasting. Adult overweight women (n = 18) from Dhaka, Bangladesh were recruited as subjects of this study. It included 3 days of wet IF and 3 days of dry IF (14 h fasting and 50% calorie restriction), with a 3-day washout period (ad libitum intake) in between. Both types of IF resulted in significant weight loss. The loss was significantly higher after 3 days of dry IF (−0.23 ± 0.02 kg; P < 0.05). Waist circumference and BMI were significantly reduced in both interventions (P <0.05) and diastolic pressure changed significantly after dry fasting (P <0.05). None of the biochemical parameters (total cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL-C, LDL-C, atherogenic coefficient, and fasting plasma glucose) changed significantly within or between interventions. The intervention compliance percentage was high for both, with no significant difference. The study findings suggest that both wet and dry IF were effective for weight loss but dry IF was more effective. The biochemical parameters did not change significantly in short term and so longer trials are needed. [Trial registration number: UMIN000041481] Bioresearch Commu. 8(1): 1053-1060, 2022 (January)

Effects of restricting energy during the gilt development period on growth and reproduction of lines differing in lean growth rate: Responses in reproductive performance and longevity

Longevity and reproductive performance are economically important traits in the swine industry that are largely influenced by nutrition and other environmental factors. Reproductive performance and longevity through 4 parities was assessed in gilts of 2 genetic lines developed on ad libitum access to feed or restricted to 75% of ad libitum intake. A total of 661 gilts were used in a 2 x 2 factorial with half of the gilts allocated to an ad libitum diet (AL; n = 330), while the other half were energy restricted by 25% (R; n = 331) from 123 to 235 d of age. All gilts were sired by an industry maternal line. Dams of the gilts were from either a Large White by Landrace industry maternal line or Nebraska Selection Line 45X, producing gilts designated as W x L (n = 355) and L45X (n = 306), respectively. Daily estrus detection began at 140 d of age to obtain age at puberty (AP). Gilts (n = 510) were mated on their second or later estrus, beginning at 240 d of age. Sow weight and backfat were recorded at 110 d of gestation and weaning of each parity. Number of live-born, stillborn, and mummified pigs per litter and piglet birth and weaning weights were recorded through 4 parities. More L45X than W x L and more AL than R gilts reached puberty by 230 d of age (P &lt; 0.01). Dietary treatment did not affect probability to produce parities 1 to 4 or any litter trait analyzed. The L45X females tended to be more likely to produce parities 1 (P &lt; 0.08) and 3 (P &lt; 0.06), while W x L had heavier litters at birth (P &lt; 0.01) and weaning (P = 0.01). Treatment by parity interactions (P &lt; 0.01) existed for weight and backfat prior to farrowing and backfat at weaning, and weight at weaning exhibited a line by treatment by parity interaction (P = 0.04) as R sows had lower weights and backfats in earlier parities, but caught up to AL sows in later parities. A treatment by parity interaction (P &lt; 0.01) was also present for backfat loss from farrowing to weaning as R gilts lost less backfat than AL in parities 1 and 2, but more in parities 3 and 4. No significant differences were detected between lines or treatments for lifetime production traits. The populations of pigs and data presented here provide a framework for a diverse array of further studies. Alternative approaches to restrict energy have been assessed in addition to methods of marker-assisted and genomic selection for improvement of litter size and sow longevity.

PSXV-22 Effect of inclusion of dried citrus pulp in the receiving supplement for newly received stocker cattle

Citrus pulp is a source of flavonoids which have been found to have antioxidant properties. Thus, the objective of this experiment was to investigate the effects of feeding dried citrus pulp on performance of newly received calves. Crossbred beef heifers (n = 254, initial body weight = 248 ± 5.9 kg) were obtained on 3 dates (block, 8 pens/block). Treatments were: 1) a corn and distillers’ grains based receiving supplement (control) or 2) a receiving supplement that contained 20% dried citrus pulp (replacing a portion of the corn). Upon arrival from regional livestock markets, cattle had access to hay and water and rested overnight then were processed the next day in which they received an identification tag, were vaccinated with a clostridial and a 5-way modified live bovine respiratory viral, dewormed, weighed, branded, and ear notched for detection of persistent infection with bovine viral diarrhea virus. Each truckload was assigned randomly to pens resulting in 8 pens with 9 to 12 heifers/pen. Pens were assigned randomly to 1 of the 2 treatments. Cattle were offered bermudagrass hay and water for ad libitum intake and were offered up to 1.8 kg/day of their appropriate receiving supplement. Overall average daily gain for the 42-day receiving period was increased (P &lt; 0.01) for calves fed the supplement that included dried citrus pulp (1.01 kg/day) compared to the calves fed the control supplement (0.90 kg/day). However, the percentage of calves treated for clinical bovine respiratory disease was increased (P &lt; 0.05) for calves fed the citrus pulp containing supplement (14% morbidity) compared to control calves (7% morbidity). The supplementation of dried citrus pulp to calves improved growth performance, but did not reduce the incidence of clinical bovine respiratory disease during the receiving period; however, clinical morbidity was low for both treatments.

178 Grazing Toxic Endophyte-infected Tall Fescue Alters Monocyte Abundance and White Blood Cell Expression of Prolactin and NF-kB Pathway Genes in Beef Steers

The hypotheses tested were that (a) summer-long (84 d) grazing of endophyte-infected tall fescue (TE) would alter the count of circulating leukocytes (WBC) and WBC expression of key prolactin and NF-kB pathway genes and (b) that ad libitum intake of an 1:1 blend (MIX) sodium selenite (ISe) and SELPLEX vs ISe in a vitamin-mineral mix (V-M, 27 ppm Se) would ameliorate negative TE effects. Sixteen TE-naïve beef steers depleted of Se were randomly assigned to ad libitum consumption of ISe vs MIX for 35 d. Within Se-form treatments, 2 steers (ISe = 316±37 kg, MIX = 314±39 kg) were randomly assigned to graze each of 4, 2-acre TE paddocks for 84 d and had ad libitum access to their respective V-M. Paddock was the experimental unit (n = 4). The MIXED procedure of SAS was used to assess effect of grazing TE (d 0 vs 84), Se-form (ISe vs MIX), and their interaction on clinical parameters WBC, and relative mRNA content (RT-PCR) in blood. Whole blood Se was 24% greater (P &lt; 0.01) for MIX steers and decreased (P &lt; 0.01) 34% by d 84. Serum prolactin decreased 88% by d 84 and was 98% greater (P &lt; 0.01) for MIX steers on d 84. Monocytes decreased (P &lt; 0.01) 47% with TE and were 67% lower (P = 0.04) in MIX steers. Grazing of TE altered mRNA content of CISH, STA5B, PPIB, AGAP2, and SPRLR; and IL-8, RELA, NFKBIA, TLR, IKBKG, ZAP70, and LCK; of the prolactin (P ≤ 0.05) and NF-kB (P ≤ 0.04) pathways, respectively. In contrast, Se form had no effect (P ≥ 0.07) on mRNA content. Summer-long consumption of TE by steers altered monocyte numbers and expression of prolactin and NF-kB genes, but ad libitum intake of MIX Se forms did not ameliorate these effects.

177 Ad Libitum Consumption of a 1:1 Blend of inorganic:organic Se by Steers Grazing Endophyte-infected Tall Fescue Increases Serum Prolactin and Alkaline Phosphatase Activity, but Not Average Daily Gain

To test the hypothesis that average daily gain (ADG) and clinical parameters of steers grazing novel non-toxic (NTE) or toxic KY-31 (TE) endophyte-infected tall fescue would be improved by ad libitum intake of vitamin-mineral mixes (V-M) that contain 27 ppm Se as a 1:1 blend of SELPLEX:sodium selenite (MIX) vs sodium selenite (ISe), 32 TE-naïve beef steers depleted of Se were randomly assigned to ad libitum consumption ISe vs MIX for 35 d and fed enough of a NTE/alfalfa/grain diet to achieve 0.57 kg BW gain/d. Within Se-form treatments, 2 steers were randomly assigned to each of 4, 2-acre NTE (ISe = 316 ± 31 kg, MIX = 315 ± 22 kg) or TE (ISe = 316 ± 37 kg, MIX = 314 ± 39 kg) paddocks for 84 d and had ad libitum access to their respective V-M. The MIXED procedure of SAS was used to assess effects of day, Se-form (ISe, MIX) and endophyte (NTE, TE) treatments, and their interactions. Whole blood Se decreased (P &lt; 0.01) 31% from d 0 to 84 and was 6.2% greater (P &lt; 0.01) for MIX steers. Serum prolactin decreased (P &lt; 0.01) 18% for NTE and 48% for TE steers from d 0 to 84 and was 17% greater (P = 0.01) for MIX vs. ISe TE steers. Alkaline phosphatase activity (AP) decreased (P &lt; 0.02) 27% from d 0 to 84 and was 15% greater (P &lt; 0.02) for MIX steers. Serum urea nitrogen increased (P &lt; 0.02) 8.2% from d 0 to 84 for TE but not NTE steers. Average daily gain (kg/d) was less (P &lt; 0.01) in TE (-0.18) vs NTE (0.09) steers. We conclude that the ad libitum intake of MIX ameliorated the negative effects of consuming TE on serum prolactin and AP but not ADG.

286 Effects of Supplementation of Quebracho Extract Supplementation on Ruminal Ph of Growing Beef Steers

Rumen acidosis is a common metabolic disorder occurring when organic acid production exceeds clearance capacity, reducing ruminal pH. Acidosis occurrence has been directly correlated to the ratio of concentrate to forage in the diet. However, the rates of substrate fermentation and acid absorption vary at different locations in the rumen. The objective of this study was to determine the pH in different locations of the rumen using 16 rumenally- cannulated steers (309 ± 43 kg) receiving quebracho extract (QT; Schinopsis balansae) within a grower-type diet [25:75 forage-to-concentrate, dry matter (DM) % basis]. Animals were randomly assigned to one of four dietary treatments (n = 4): QT at 0, 1, 2, and 3% of DM (QT0, QT1, QT2, and QT3). Animals were adapted to the basal diet (QT0) for 12-d before being introduced to predetermined treatments for four weeks, with feed provided twice daily to allow ad libitum intake. Weekly measurements of ruminal fluid pH and redox potential (Eh) were taken four h post-feeding using a portable pH and redox meter probe in four locations of the rumen (cranial sac, ventral sac, dorsal sac, and reticulum). Data were analyzed using a random coefficients model with the pen as a random effect and week as repeated measures. The DM intake was included as a covariate. There was no interaction among diet, location, and week (P ≥ 0.925) on pH. Overall, ruminal pH was lower for QT0 and QT1 compared to QT3 (P &lt; 0.001). Ruminal pH in the cranial sac and reticulum was greater than in the dorsal sac (5.98, 6.03, and 5.87, respectively; P = 0.001). Redox potential was lower for QT0 in week 1 than all other treatments (P = 0.042). This study indicated that pH differs among locations of the rumen regardless of QT supplementation level and days on feed.

Technical note: The Comparison of pH and Redox Potential in Different Locations in the Reticulo-Rumen of Growing Beef Steers Supplemented with Different Levels of Quebracho Extract

Rumen acidosis is a common metabolic disorder occurring when organic acid production exceeds clearance capacity, reducing ruminal pH. The occurrence of acidosis has been directly correlated to the ratio of concentrate to forage in the diet. However, rates of substrate fermentation and acid absorption vary at different locations in the reticulo-rumen. The objective of this study was to determine the pH and redox potential (Eh) in different locations of the reticulo-rumen using 16 ruminally cannulated steers (309 ± 43 kg) receiving different supplementation levels of quebracho extract (QT; Schinopsis balansae) within a grower-type diet (CP : 13.4 %; TDN: 70.4 %, and ME : 2.55 Mcal/kg, basis dry matter [DM] basis). Animals were randomly assigned to one of four dietary treatments: QT at 0, 1, 2, and 3% of DM (QT0, QT1, QT2, and QT3; respectively), containing about 0, 0.7, 1.4, and 2.1% of condensed tannins (CT), DM basis, respectively. Animals were adapted to the basal diet for 12-d before being introduced to predetermined treatments for 4 weeks (wk), with diets provided twice daily to allow ad libitum intake. Weekly measurements of ruminal fluid pH and Eh were taken 4 h post-feeding using a portable pH meter with 2 probes (pH and redox) in four locations of the reticulo-rumen (reticulum, cranial sac, dorsal sac, and ventral sac). Data were analyzed using a random coefficients model with the pen as a random effect and wk as repeated measures, with DM intake included as a covariate. There was no interaction among treatments, location, and wk (P ≥ 0.882) on reticulo-ruminal pH. Overall, ruminal pH was lower for QT0 and QT1 compared to QT3 (P &lt; 0.001). The pH in the reticulum was greater than those of the ventral and dorsal sacs (6.05 vs. 5.94, 5.89, respectively; P ≤ 0.001) but similar to cranial sac (6.00). Reticular pH was positively correlated with the ruminal locations ( ≥ 0.78; P &lt; 0.001). The linear equation to estimate ruminal mean pH using reticulum pH had an intercept and slope different from zero (P ≤ 0.04), but CT (% DM) was not different from zero (P = 0.15), root mean square error of 0.15, and R 2 of 0.778: 0.723 (±0.36) + 0.857 (±0.059) × Reticulum pH + 0.033 (±0.023) × CT. The redox potential was lower for QT0 in wk 1 than all other treatments (P &lt; 0.001). We concluded that reticulo-ruminal pH differs among locations in the rumen regardless of QT supplementation level and days on feed, with reticular pH being the highest.

Effects of Soy Protein Intake on Low Bone Mass Caused by Energy Restriction in Young Female Rats

Objectives Eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa, in young adulthood have been shown to lower bone mineral density (BMD), possibly due to the dysfunction of growth and gonadal hormones caused by reduced energy intake, which leads to bone loss. Isoflavones in soy protein have estrogen-like effects and are used as an alternative treatment for a wide range of hormonal disorders such as osteoporosis. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of soy protein intake on bone fragility caused by energy restriction in young female rats. Methods Six-week-old Sprague–Dawley female rats were acclimated for 1 week and then divided into four groups: (1) ad libitum intake and casein diet group (Cas: n = 8), (2) ad libitum intake and soy diet group (Soy: n = 8), (3) energy-restricted and casein diet group (ER-Cas: n = 8), and (4) energy-restricted and soy diet group (ER-Soy: n = 8). The animals were maintained under these feeding conditions for 10.5 weeks. In the energy-restricted groups, the calorific intake was reduced by 40%. After rearing, viscera, blood, muscle, and bone samples were collected. Bone samples were evaluated for BMD by the dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry method. Two-way analysis of variance and multiple comparison tests were used to evaluate the differences among the four groups. Results The bodyweight and uterine weight results revealed a significant main effect of energy restriction on bone mineral content (BMC), bone area, and BMD. BMC and BMD results revealed a significant interaction of soy protein and energy restriction. BMD was highest in the Soy group, followed by the Cas group, ER-Cas group, and ER-Soy group. There was no difference in estradiol among the four groups. Energy restriction had a significant main effect on insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I), which was significantly reduced in the ER-Soy group compared with the two ad libitum groups. Conclusions Soy protein showed a tendency of having a positive effect on BMD and IGF-I under ad libitum conditions, whereas under energy restriction, it had a negative effect and did not suppress the effect of energy restriction. Funding Sources This work was supported by the Research Grant of Fuji Foundation for Protein Research and the Cooperative Research Grant of Advanced Research Initiative for Human High Performance, University of Tsukuba.

Az első lépések a fogyasztóvá váláshoz: Hogyan befolyásolja az óvodáskorú gyermekek környezete az élelmiszer-fogyasztási viselkedésüket? = The first steps to becoming consumers: How preschool children's surroundings impact on their food consumption behaviour

A márkanevek fokozott jelenléte társadalmunkban a gyermekek körében már egyre korábban kialakítja a márkatudatosságot és a márkapreferenciát (Dotson és Hyatt, 2005). A helyzetet árnyalja, hogy a családok vásárlási és fogyasztási szokásai is változtak az idők során, lehetővé téve, hogy a gyermekeket - már az óvodás korosztályt is - egyre komolyabban vegyük, mint fogyasztókat. A gyermekek hozzáadott értéket képviselnek a gazdasági társaságok számára, mint fogyasztók, akik maguk vásárolnak, mint szüleik befolyásolói és jövőbeli hűséges vásárlók (Hofmeister-Tóth, 2003). Ma a média egyre inkább független fogyasztóként szólítja meg a gyermekeket, egy ördögi kört hozva létre. A fenti tényezőket figyelembe véve jelen tanulmány célja annak feltárása, hogy a gyermekek személyes és társadalmi környezete mely módon befolyásolja őket a jelenlegi élelmiszer-fogyasztási szokásaikban, milyen módon alakul ki a márkatudatosságuk és a márka-preferenciájuk az egyéni fogyasztóvá válás útján. A disszertáció kvalitatív és kvantitatív kutatási technikákat egyaránt alkalmaz, mivel a vizsgált alanyok gyermekek lesznek, ezért a kvalitatív kutatások a kérdés átfogó megértéséhez nagyon fontosak. Kvalitatív és kvantitatív primer pilot kutatások készültek bizonyos kérdések előzetes tesztelése és annak megértése érdekében, hogy mely kérdéseket kell részletesebben megvizsgálni. A pilot kvalitatív márkatudatosság teszt egy úgynevezett Márkatudatosság tesztből állt, ahol egy rövid interjút követően tizenhárom különböző logót kellet felismerniük a gyermekeknek. Egy kvantitatív megközelítésre is választás esett: pilot tanulmány keretén belül egy felmérés formájában, mely Wardle et al. (2001) Gyermekek Étkezési Magatartás Kérdőívét adaptálta. A társas kapcsolatok mérésére kvalitatív teszt lett alkalmazva, szociometria formájában, mely két gyermekcsoportban lett elvégezve, két különböző magyar óvodában. Ezentúl mélyinterjúk segítették megérteni a családok mindennapi élete során az összetett döntéshozatali folyamatokat. Az interjúkat egy bolti megfigyelés követte. A márkatudatosság eszköz (Forman et al., 2009) korábbi tanulmányára építve a Magyar Márkatudatosság eszköz lett alkalmazva a magyar gyermekek körében. A Magyar Márkatudatosság eszköz egy olyan eszköz kifejlesztését tűzte ki célul, amely mérheti az étel- és italmárka-tudatosságot a magyar gyermekeknél. A televíziós fogyasztás valójában befolyásolja azt, hogy a márkák mennyire vannak jelen napi rendszerességgel a családok életében. Az eredmények alátámasztják, hogy nincs összefüggés a televíziózás mennyisége és a gyermekek reklámtudata között. Az eredmények azt is sugallják, hogy a médiafogyasztás befolyásolja az étkezési magatartás különböző aspektusait, például a válogatós és az érzelmi étkezést. A megnövekedett médiafogyasztás továbbá befolyásolja a gyermek márkatudatosságát. A kutatási eredmények azt tükrözik, hogy a logók és márkák ismerete sokkal magasabb volt azoknál a gyermekeknél, akik naponta nézték a televíziót, ugyanakkor nem ez volt a helyzet az internetfogyasztással. Bár a Magyar Márkatudatosság eszköz pozitív összefüggést talált a márkatudatosság és a médiafogyasztás között, ez csak közepesen erős volt. Ez azt jelzi, hogy bár van kapcsolat a médiafogyasztás valamilyen formája és a márkatudatosság között, de lehet, hogy nem ez a legfontosabb befolyásoló tényező a gyermekek életében. Az eredmények arra utalnak, hogy a televízió-fogyasztás befolyásolhatja a gyermekek márka-preferenciáit, míg az internet-fogyasztás nem. Emiatt a médiafogyasztással kapcsolatos kutatási kérdés csak részben igazolható. Összességében a megállapítások arra utalnak, hogy a családi környezet számos tényezője mélyen befolyásolja az óvodáskorú gyermekek élelmiszer-fogyasztói magatartását. Az eredmények hangsúlyozták a nagycsaládok fontosságát, a márkák elérhetőségét a háztartásban, a család jövedelmi szintjét, valamint az esetleges ételallergiákat, amelyek befolyásolják a gyermekek márkaválasztását és az egész család fogyasztási magatartását. Az mélyinterjúk és a megfigyelések azt mutatták, hogy a gyermekek jelenléte a bolti látogatások során mind a szülők, mind a gyermekek fogyasztási szokásait nagymértékben befolyásolja, külön kiemelve a tejtermékek választására gyakorolt hatást, emiatt a családok befolyására vonatkozó kutatási kérdés igazolódik. A mélyinterjú résztvevői hangsúlyozták, hogy a társas kapcsolatok hatással vannak a gyermekek fogyasztói magatartására, különösen a rágcsálnivalók és játékok tekintetében. A szociometria kutatások összefüggést találtak a gyermekek közötti barátságok száma és a felismert logók között. Míg a második szociometria kutatás rámutatott az alacsony márkapreferencia és az alacsony kölcsönös barátság közötti kapcsolatra. A társas befolyással kapcsolatos végső kutatási kérdést szintén igazoljuk. Jelen értekezés képes volt rendszerezni a gyermekek fogyasztói magatartását befolyásoló tényezőket és magyarázó modelleket. A korábbi szakirodalom elemzésével nyert ismeretek felhasználásával egy új kutatási modellt sikerült bemutatni, amely megmagyarázza a gyermekek élelmiszer-fogyasztói viselkedését befolyásoló tényezőket. A dolgozatban kidolgozásra került az óvodáskorú gyermekek ország specifikus márka-tudatossági eszköze, nevezetesen a Magyar Márkatudatosság Eszköz. A Magyar Márkatudatosság eszközt vagy hasonló eszközt eddig még nem alkalmazták Magyarországon, ezért önmagában új tudományos eredmények számít. Ez az eszköz hasznos lehet olyan kísérleti területeknél, ahol a gyermekcsoportokat reklámfeltételeknek teszik ki, a kiindulási márka ismertségének mércéjeként, hogy feltárják a promóciók epizodikus kitettségének az élelmiszerekkel kapcsolatos attitűdökre és választásra gyakorolt hatását (Turner et al, 2015). Ugyanakkor, a szociometria segítségével a márkatudatosság vizsgálata egy teljesen új módszertani megközelítés, amely nagy lehetőségeket rejt magában a jövőbeni kutatásoknál e területen. A jelen disszertáció feltárja a különféle szocializációs ágensek főbb összefüggéseit és azok hatását a gyermekek élelmiszer-fogyasztói viselkedésére a különféle mintákon belül. Az eredmények azt tükrözik, hogy az összes szocializációs ágens befolyásolja a gyermekek ételfogyasztási magatartását, azonban a hatás mértéke eltérő. Végül az eredmények alapján javaslatok születtek a Magyarországon jelenleg alkalmazott szabályzatok módosítására és továbbfejlesztésére a döntéshozók és a szülők támogatása érdekében. HIVATKOZÁSOK 1. Dotson, M. J. & Hyatt, E. M. (2005). Major influence factors in children's consumer socialization. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 22 (1), 35-42. o. 2. Forman, J., Halford, J. C., Summe, H., MacDougall, M. & Keller, K. L. (2009). Food branding influences ad libitum intake differently in children depending on weight status. Results of a pilot study. Appetite, 53 (1), 76-83. o. 3. Hofmeister-Tóth, Á. (2003). Fogyasztói magatartás, Aula Kiadó. 4. Turner, L., Kelly, B., Boyland, E., & Bauman, A. E. (2015). Measuring food brand awareness in Australian children: development and validation of a new instrument. PloS one, 10(7). 5. Wardle, J., Guthrie, C. A., Sanderson, S. & Rapoport, L. (2001a). Development of the children's eating behaviour questionnaire. 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