Standard English in Trinidad: Multinormativity, Translocality, and Implications for the Dynamic Model and the EIF Model

This article applies the Dynamic Model and the Extra- and Intra-territorial Forces (EIF) Model to Standard English in Trinidad based on the findings of a large-scale attitude study. The results suggest that, in the educational domain in Trinidad, a multidimensional norm orientation with coexisting standards that incorporates exo- and endonormative tendencies is prevalent. The Dynamic Model is not fully able to explain the findings, but the EIF Model can account for this norm complexity. However, the assumption underlying both models that postcolonial Englishes prototypically achieve (full) endonormativity unless their development is stalled at an earlier stage or even reversed is unlikely to fully capture the norm developmental processes in Trinidad and other complex postcolonial speech communities. We therefore propose an extension of the EIF Model that, depending on the constellation, directionality, and continuity of different sets of forces, allows for multinormative stabilization as an alternative development. We also introduce translocality as an alternative theoretical framework for the conceptualization of forces and argue for a more comprehensive understanding of intra-varietal heterogeneity. An extended and modified version of the EIF Model that takes these further complexities into account can help explain the norm developments in highly complex postcolonial speech communities.

English in the Philippines: A Case of Rootedness and Routedness

The researcher focuses on a hybrid form of English and Cebuano-Bisaya, one of the dominant local languages in the Philippines. Drawing from the Extra and Intra-territorial Model of Buschfeld and Kautzsch, the article argues that the emergence of Bislish is propelled by extra- and intra-territorial forces: first, language policies and a regional resistance against Tagalog as the national language; second, the surge of globalization and the Cebuano speakers’ endeavor for upward and outward mobility. The researcher surmounts that the prominence of Bislish in various domains, particularly in online communities of practice, is tied to the speakers’ attitudes of rootedness and routedness. The study affirms the viability of the EIF Model in explicating cases of language hybridity in postcolonial contexts.

English in Australia – Extra-territorial Influences

This chapter discusses the extra-territorial influence of American English on Australian English, in comparison with other varieties within the spectrum of World Englishes. Its aim is to compare the different orientations to American English in Australia that can be observed using qualitative and quantitative methods, and so to illuminate the different ways in which extra- and intra-territorial influences can impact on individual varieties. Two kinds of evidence are presented: (i) attitudinal data derived from Australians commenting in the complaint tradition on elements of pronunciation and spelling; and (ii) corpus data on lexical and morphosyntactic sets where shifting preferences are attributed to American influence. While perceptions of the extent of American influence are inflated, the inventory of Americanisms used in Australia continues to grow.

English in Gibraltar: Applying the EIF Model to English in Non-Postcolonial Overseas Territories

The variety of English spoken in the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar shares with postcolonial varieties the fact that a new variety of English emerged from a process of language contact. Although GibE has been tentatively placed in the phase ‘Endonormative Stabilization’ of the Dynamic Model, Weston (2011) notes some theoretical problems in its application, given the still non-postcolonial status of Gibraltar. The integrative approach of the EIF Model may constitute a more comprehensive framework for the analysis of the evolution, current status and linguistic forms of GibE (see Buschfeld and Kautzsch 2017: 105). By assessing the local linguistic realities of the territory, this paper attempts to trace the development of English in Gibraltar and the degree of nativization of GibE. It analyzes (i) the political status of Gibraltar, (ii) the population size, (iii) the sociodemographic background (paying special attention to age) and (iv) the coexistence of different languages.

English in Namibia: Multilingualism and Ethnic Variation in the Extra- and Intra-territorial Forces Model

This chapter presents a close analysis of the Namibian linguistic ecology and the role of Namibian English (NamE) in the multilingual make-up of the country. This includes the discussion of the status of English in comparison to Afrikaans, the country’s primary lingua franca, and to minority languages, such as German, as well as majority languages, such as Oshiwambo. Taking up and elaborating on observations on Namibian-specific phonetic realizations of vowels, identifying linguistic identity constructions, ethnolinguistic variation and discussing in detail the (historical) relationship between South Africa (as an epicentre) and Namibia, it shows that NamE cannot be seen as a monolithic whole but should rather be considered a bundle of local sub-varieties. The chapter further discusses the applicability of the EIF Model to the Namibian case and makes some suggestions on how to include additional extra-territorial forces, discussions of heterogeneity, norm development as well as a different approach to developmental stages in model making.

English in India: Global Aspirations, Local Identities at the Grassroots

This chapter presents the results of an attitudinal study carried out in Maharashtra, India. This study investigates in which contexts and how often Maharashtrians use English, Hindi, Marathi, and other local languages, and which language(s) they identify with. The study shows that the respondents favour different languages in different situations but primarily perceive English as the language of upward mobility. However, English is not the language that Maharashtrians in the study identify with most frequently, which suggests that language attitudes and language identity need to be teased apart more precisely in the EIF Model and in World Englishes modelling in general.

English in Japan: The Applicability of the EIF Model

The chapter considers the case of Japan and its historical involvement with English from the point of earliest contact, through the Meiji Restoration, and analyses the subsequent development of Japanese English (JE) to the present day. It presents a careful discussion of applying Buschfeld and Kautzsch’s EIF Model to Japan, both from the viewpoint of Schneider’s Dynamic Model, and the enhanced perspective offered by the EIF Model. A range of loanwords and morpho-syntactic features are discussed, and well as cultural influences from a variety of external and internal forces. Finally, the chapter investigates possible advantages of – and points that need further definition in – developing the EIF Model and its theoretical contribution to the field. The chapter demonstrates that the EIF Model is indeed useful in the description and categorization of Expanding Circle varieties of English, and helps enhance the world Englishes paradigm to better account for these emerging varieties.

English in South Korea: Applying the EIF Model

This chapter applies the EIF Model by Buschfeld and Kautzsch (2017) to the case of South Korea, where English has a special status due to the military involvement of the US after World War II, and where the desire for English is both strong and persistent. The continuing deployment of American soldiers to South Korea in combination with the factors of globalization and the global mobility of individuals contributes to a strong presence of English in the East Asian nation. This chapter proposes to add the factors of ‘presence of English in the linguistic landscape and within the L1’ as well as ‘cultural phenomena’ to the forces to be included in the EIF Model as these potentially influence further development of the respective variety. Consequently, English loanwords in Korean and the phenomenon of K-Pop are discussed from a World Englishes perspective. In the end, South Korea is placed between the stabilization (phase 2) and nativization phase (phase 3) of the EIF Model.

English in Ireland: Intra-territorial Perspectives on Language Contact

This study investigates in how far Schneider’s Dynamic Model and the Extra- and Intra-territorial Forces Model can explain the rise of the English language in Ireland. The study uses a largely qualitative approach with data drawn from historical texts and corpora. It is argued that the English language, in spite of the strong position of the Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman settlers, was a minority language potentially under threat of extinction at the beginning of the early Modern Period and developed into the de facto first language in Ireland due to continued extra- and intra-territorial pressure. Irish language speaking population groups nevertheless retained sufficient linguistic influence to allow for some language contact features to observable in the resulting contact variety of English.

Introduction

In the Introduction to the volume, the editors introduce the overall topic, i.e., newly emerging realities and current debates in World Englishes theorising. They discuss why a unified approach towards postcolonial and non-postcolonial Englishes is inevitable to fully capture the current linguistic realities behind the spread and entrenchment of English worldwide. Subsequently, they provide a concise summary of the EIF Model (Buschfeld and Kautzsch) in comparison to Schneider’s (2003, 2007) Dynamic Model, and offer a brief description of the outline of the book by chapter.