Gender Equality in Rwanda: What remains a stumbling block to full realization of gender parity in education

Rwanda has made tremendous achievements in improving access of both males and females all levels of education. To this end, reforms and equity measures have been undertaken to promote gender equality within the Rwandan education system. However, while the proportion of female students is quite good at lower levels of education, it shrinks at higher educational ladder. In this perspective, enrollment, participation, completion and achievement rates of girls are still lower at secondary and tertiary levels compared to boys. Another discrepancy is observed in the fields of studies and university of choice. In fact, girls are more likely to enroll in courses related to social studies mostly available in private institutions rather than enrolling in science related courses available in public universities. Furthermore, females are under-represented in both academic and administration positions at secondary and tertiary levels of education. Therefore, the key objectives of this paper were to highlight the progress made towards achievement of gender equality, to identify the factors that contributed to that achievement, and finally to explore what remains a stumbling to full realization of gender parity in Rwandan education system. This paper was mainly a desktop research that used different official documents including statistics yearbooks, reports, and strategic plans among others. The study revealed that the number of girls outnumbered that of boys at lower levels of education, elimination of school fees, reforming curricula and establishing gender sensitive infrastructure contributed to this progress. Poverty and some traditional socio-cultural beliefs are key challenges to gender parity. Government and other stakeholders were recommended to sensitize and encourage girls to enroll in TVT and universities, and provide more gender sensitive infrastructure and amenities.

Contribution of women entrepreneurs’ initiatives to community welfare in Kanjongo, Nyamasheke District, Rwanda

Entrepreneurship has been a male-dominated phenomenon from the very early age, but time has changed the situation and brought women as today's most memorable and inspirational entrepreneurs. In almost all the developed countries in the world women are putting their steps at par with the men to increase the productivity of their society. This study has been done purposely to show the contribution of women in country development starting from them towards surroundings in Kanjongo sector of Nyamasheke district, Western province of Rwanda. The socioeconomic contribution of women in community development has been assessed using interview; the economic benefits analysis has been conducted to compare the women entrepreneurs’ status before and after being engaged in entrepreneurial activity. The results indicated that 37.21% of women contributed to the payment of health insurance for themselves and families while they were only 15.12% before. The capacity of paying school fees for their children has increased from 12.79% to 24.42%. The capacity of saving above 50,000 Frw has grown up from 27.91% to 62.8%. Their tax payment capability was raised from 19.77% to 100% as well as the capacity of having domestic animal which has risen from 27.91% to 100%. The construction of houses, job creation and food security also were known as fields where women used their earnings. Women entrepreneurs revealed challenges of lacking experience and skills at a level of 47.67%. These findings show that women entrepreneurs should be more sensitized on the importance of taking entrepreneurships initiatives and the government should organize short and long trainings to women to enhance their entrepreneurships skills and sustain their businesses.

Prevalence of hypertension and factors associated with screening uptake in Kanjongo, Nyamasheke District, Rwanda

Hypertension in Africa was estimated to 30.8% in 2010 with dramatic increase in some regions ranging between 36.2%-77.3% (Adeloye & Basquill, 2014). In Rwanda, the prevalence of hypertension was estimated to 15.3%, but the factors associated with screening uptake were not explored (Nahimana et al., 2017). The study objectives were: (1) to determine the prevalence of hypertension among the population attending the monthly community work” Umuganda” in a selected sector, and (2) to identify the factors associated with screening uptake. Data were collected using an interview questionnaire, the blood pressure was at the same time measured, and analytic cross-sectional design was adopted. The respondents were 383, of them 60.3% were female and 39.7% were male, aged between 18-34 years old (30.5%), 35-49 years old (39.4%), and 50 years and above (30.0%). The prevalence of hypertension was 17.5%, and 46.5% have never been tested before. The majority (96.3%) planned to get tested regularly, 95.6% perceived hypertension as a serious disease, and 64.8% perceived themselves susceptible to get hypertension. Sources of information were media (89.6%), health staff (79.4%), campaigns (73.1%), Community Health Workers (CHWs) (67.1%), and neighbors (57.7%). Reported barriers to screening were lack of information (87.5%), delay of health insurance (79.1%), lack of readiness of the health care staff (75.7%), perceived quality of health care delivery (52.2%), and the perceived cost (46.5%). Factors influencing the screening were gender (Chi-square 7.82, p=0.004), age (Chi-square 8.35, p=0.015), and occupation (Chi-square 19.53, p˂0.000). The perceived susceptibility influenced the perceived severity (Chi-square 33.51, p˂0.000), community sensitization (Chi-square 5.52, p=0.019), and perceived benefits (Chi-square 9.08, p=0.003). Hypertension prevalence was higher than the national estimates. Perceived susceptibility, community sensitization, age, gender and occupation were the key factors influencing the screening uptake. Community-based interventions to increase awareness and screening of hypertension are highly recommended.

The Role of the Public-Private Partnerships in Widening Access to Tertiary Education in Rwanda: Evidences and Challenges

Education is a key instrument for any nations’ economic, political, and social development. This is because education increases productivity of workers, reduces criminal activities, reduces mortality rates, and controls birth rates among many others. To these ends, governments assume the responsibility for providing and financing education. However, due to limited resources, governments, particularly in low and middle income countries are not able to respond to the high need and demand for education. It is in this perspective that governments have to explore diverse ways of financing and providing education. They therefore involve the private sector in financing and management of educational institutions. The purpose of this study was therefore to examine the role of Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) in widening access to higher education in Rwanda. Specifically, it tried to find out the extent to which PPPs has widened access to tertiary education in Rwanda, to highlight different forms of PPPs in Rwandan tertiary education and finally to explore different challenges to PPPs in Rwandan tertiary education. The study was a critical review critical review of different educational documents about the role of the public-private partnership in education. The study revealed that PPPs has considerably widened access to tertiary education. It was also revealed that PPPs take the form privately managed educational institutions, public and private organizations offering scholarships to students and the purchase of educational services from private sector by the government. It was finally revealed that lack of qualified staff, limited financing, and lack of policy and framework are key challenges to PPPs in tertiary education. Hence, government was recommended to develop clear PPPs policy and framework governing PPPs and both public and private sectors to strengthen PPPs to widen access to tertiary education for country sustainable development.

Prevalence of diabetes mellitus and factors associated with screening uptake in Kanjongo, Nyamasheke District, Rwanda

The prevalence of diabetes mellitus in Sub-Saharan Africa was 13.7% in 2016 (Werfalli, Engel, Musekiwa, Kengne, & Levitt, 2016), which is higher than 8.7%, the global diabetes prevalence in 2015 (WHO, 2016). Fewer studies explored the factors associated with diabetes early detection for its prevention and control (WHO, 2016). Study objectives were: (1) to determine the prevalence of diabetes mellitus among the population attending the monthly community work in a selected sector, and (2) to identify the factors associated with diabetes screening and early detection. All 383 respondents who were attending the community monthly work were invited to be screened for diabetes and to be surveyed using an interview-guide questionnaire. Out of 383 respondents, 60.3% were female and 39.7% were male. The prevalence of diabetes was 8.6%, and only 27.9% have been tested before. The majority (95.3%) perceived regular testing beneficial, 62.4% perceived themselves susceptible to get diabetes, and 94.8% perceived diabetes as a serious disease. The sources of information were radio and television (89.6%), health care staff (79.4%), mass campaigns (73.1%), Community Health Workers (CHWs) (67.1%), and the neighbors (57.7%). Reported barriers to screening were lack of information (87.5%), delay of health insurance (79.1%), lack of readiness of the health care staff (75.7%), perceived quality of health care (52.2%) and the perceived cost (46.5%). The factors associated with the screening were the age (p=0.01), occupation (p<0.000), the perceived susceptibility (p˂ 0.000), the perceived threat (p=0.005), community sensitization by CHWs (p=0.003), mass campaign (p=0.001), and neighbors (p=0.009). Diabetes prevalence was lower than the Sub-Saharan prevalence estimates. Community sensitization through CHWs, mass campaigns and neighbors, information provision, disease perception, age, occupation, and quality of health care were the predictors of diabetes screening. Decentralized community sensitization and screening programs are highly recommended.

Systematic review of hypertension prevalence and awareness in Sub-Saharan Africa

Several studies have reported high prevalence of hypertension in Africa, but little is known on awareness and determinants of preventive measures uptake. The purpose of the review was to identify and review the studies which reported at the same time on the prevalence of hypertension and awareness among the participants in sub-Saharan Africa, and to recommend needed research studies and interventions to prevent and control hypertension increase. High prevalence of hypertension was found across sub-Saharan African countries. The increasing hypertension rate moved from 19.7% in 1990 to 30.8% in 2010, with very high increase in some sub-regions up to 77%. A low awareness was found, less than 50% and in some place less than 10%. Also a high rate of hypertensive patients who were not on treatment was found. There is a very increasing prevalence of hypertension and unawareness in sub-Saharan Africa. There is also a high rate of hypertensive patients who are not on treatment. Studies and interventions aiming at understanding determinants of hypertension screening and treatment uptake are much recommended.

Predictors of nutritional management failure for under-five children with malnutrition in Nyamasheke District, Rwanda

The general objective of this study was to assess the predicators of nutrition management failure among children under-five who participated in the nutrition program from 2012 up to 2015 in Nyamasheke District, Rwanda. The study included 169 children, out of which 78 were males and the remaining 91 were females. Of the children examined, 20.1% exhibited stunting growth of these 61.8% were females, 42.6% were underweight of these 51.4% were females and 10.1% were wasting of these 70.6% were males. Failure of nutritional management intervention was associated with both health system and family related factors. The common Health system predictors associated with failure of nutritional management programme were few activities related to the promotion of breastfeeding (OR: 5.0; 95 % CI: 1.56-16.2, P = 0.007), not following the Ministry of Health malnutrition management guidelines (OR: 5.85, 95% CI: 1.93417.69, P = 0.002), and poor knowledge about malnutrition management guideline (OR: 0.45, 95% CI: 0.21-0.99, P = 0.049). Family related predictors associated to the failure of nutritional management intervention include childhood illness such as fever (OR: 0.76, 95% CI: 0.36-1.61 P= 0.035), duration of breastfeeding (OR 0.7: 95% CI: 0.45-7.02 p = 0.035), number of meals per day (OR: 1.85 95% CI: 0.60-5.73; P = 0.002), and maternal age (OR: 1.96, 95% CI: 0.31-12.12; P = 0.027). These factors associated with failure of nutrition management should be considered in establishing effective measures for successful management and prevention of malnutrition.

Systematic review of cervical cancer prevalence and determinants of early detection in Sub-Saharan Africa

Cervical cancer is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality globally and in Sub-Saharan Africa in particular. There is evidence that early detection and early management of cases are the best strategies to prevent and control this health threat, since treatment of the later stages of the diseases are very expensive. The objectives of the review were: (1) to identify and review studies on the prevalence of cervical cancer and determinants of early detection in Sub-Saharan Africa, and (2) to recommend further studies and interventions based on the findings of this review. Extensive literature search was conducted using the MeSH terms. Articles on cervical cancer and/or determinants of early detection which fulfilled inclusion criteria were reviewed independently by three reviewers. The prevalence of cervical cancer in Sub-Saharan Africa is increasing. Although there are evidences that cervical cancer screening programs are practical and feasible even in resource-limited settings in Sub-Saharan Africa, there is a very low uptake of cervical cancer screening and there are key factors that need to be addressed in order to make these programs established and effective.

Systematic review of diabetes mellitus prevalence and determinants of early detection in Africa

Several studies have reported dramatic increase of the prevalence of diabetes mellitus in Africa, and barriers to early detection and treatment, which are cost-effective strategies to prevent and control diabetes mellitus and combat its morbidity and premature mortality. The paper aimed to review the literature on the prevalence of diabetes mellitus and determinants of early detection in Africa. MeSH terms in the PUBMED Medline, LISTA (EBSCO), Cochrane, and Google Scholar in order to identify recent literature published from the year 2012 to 2017. Seven articles were reviewed, and high increase of the prevalence of diabetes mellitus in Africa was found. Evidences of cost-effectiveness with early detection and treatment were found; however, early detection is hindered by several factors that need to be addressed. In addition, the paucity of articles on early detection of diabetes mellitus and community-based prevention and control programs was observed. There is an increasing prevalence of diabetes mellitus in Africa, and there is paucity of evidences on the determinants of early detection and treatment program. Operational studies and community-based interventions aiming to community sensation and screening for diabetes mellitus are highly recommended.

Relationship between teacher characteristics and school performance in public secondary schools in Nyamasheke and Nyarugenge District, Rwanda

In school system, the teacher is the key input as he/she is the one to create a conducive atmosphere for learning by preparing the learning content, preparing classroom environment, ordering materials, using a variety of methods to deliver learning, and he/she also assesses the level of learners, manages time and students, and should be a good role model. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine whether and to the extent to which relationship exists between teacher characteristics and school performance in public secondary schools in Nyamasheke and Nyarugenge districts. Specifically, the study sought to describe teacher characteristics, determine the extent to which teacher characteristics correlate with school performance, and find out the strategies adopted to enhance school performance in public secondary schools located in the two districts. This study was guided by Education Production Function theory and it adopted a correlation research design. The target population involved 70 head teachers and 2 district education officers. 21 head teachers and 2 district education officers were surveyed. Stratified sampling, simple random sampling and purposive sampling techniques were used to select this sample and questionnaires, document review schedule, and interview schedule were used to collect data. It was found that only 61.15% of teachers have a bachelor’s degree, among them only 63.81% have undergone a pedagogical course, and only 56.05% have an experience of more than three years. It was further found that among the teacher characteristics, teacher qualification, professional training and experience highly correlate with school mean performance and as the coefficient of determination for each varies between 0.41 and 0.63. It was therefore recommended that the government and all other stakeholders should allocate more resources to train more teachers and retain experienced ones and provide more in-service training to enhance teachers’ professionalism.