Contractarian Justice and Severe Cognitive Disabilities

Author(s):  
Samuel Freeman

This chapter defends a moral contractarian approach to the problem of justice towards persons with severe and profound cognitive disabilities. Critics such as Martha Nussbaum argue that contract views are incapable of justifying the rights of the severely cognitively disabled since they do not have the capacities for practical reasoning, social cooperation, and productive activity. But the moral contract method is not restricted to arguing only for the rights and claims of normally functioning individuals. It can be generalized and regarded as an impartial moral perspective from which to justify duties of justice owed to all persons. Trustees or guardians for the severely cognitively disabled can then act as representatives of their interests, and impartially agree to principles of justice specifically designed to address their special needs and basic capabilities. The approach is Rawlsian, though the arguments go beyond Rawls’ view and draw on Scanlon’s contractualism and other considerations.

Author(s):  
Samuel Freeman

This chapter argues that distributive justice is institutionally based. Certain cooperative institutions are basic: they are necessary for economic production and the division of labor, trade and exchange, and distribution and consumption. These background institutions presuppose principles of justice to specify their terms, allocate productive resources, and define fair distributions. Primary among these basic institutions are property; laws and conventions enabling transfers of goods and productive resources; and the legal system of contract and agreements that make transfers possible and productive. Political institutions are necessary to specify, interpret, enforce, and make effective the terms of these institutions. Thus, basic cooperative institutions are social; they are realizable only within the context of social and political cooperation—this is a fixed empirical fact about cooperation among free and equal persons. Given the nature of fair social cooperation as a kind of reciprocity, distributive justice is primarily social rather than global in reach.


2019 ◽  
Vol 62 (4) ◽  
pp. 147-159
Author(s):  
Milica Jaksic-Arsic

The aim of this paper will be to investigate Rawls? theory of justice concerning the position of the disabled people. First of all, I will expose his two principles of justice. Secondly, I will expose criticism of Eva Kittay and Martha Nussbaum, who claim that our acceptance of Rawlsian theory prevents us from achieving the just position of the people with disabilities. After that I will examine one of the most successful upgrades of Rawls? original theory that was established by Harry Brighouse. However, Brighouse?s upgrade improves the position of only those individuals who had become disabled due to natural reasons and not due to their own mistakes. This is why I will, finally, tend to point out that the exclusion of those individuals whose disability is a consequence of their own mistake is not justified, since it incorporates a deontological assumption that is not necessary for Rawls? theory of justice.


Author(s):  
Samuel Freeman

This chapter responds to G. A. Cohen’s criticisms of Rawls’s reliance upon social and psychological facts about humans to argue for his principles of justice. Cohen contends that such facts are irrelevant to the justification of fundamental principles of justice and that Rawls’s difference principle is not a fundamental principle but a principle of regulation to accommodate injustice due to human selfishness. I respond to these criticisms by discussing three reasons why the first principles of a moral conception of justice should be “fact-sensitive”: First, a conception of justice should be compatible with our moral and psychological capacities. Second, a conception of justice should provide principles for practical reasoning and supply a public basis for justification across conceptions of the good. Third, a moral conception should not frustrate but affirm the pursuit of the human good, including the exercise and development of our moral capacities and sense of justice.


2017 ◽  
Vol 47 (188) ◽  
pp. 389-410
Author(s):  
Alex Demirović

Political parties and social movements activists refere to the notion of justice as founding principle of critism. Demirovi? argues that the norm of justice is not able to motivate criticism and action. The norm of justice plays an important role in professional moral philosophy as is the case in the approaches of Martha Nussbaum or John Rawls. The offer arguments for their claims to give people and states a moral perspective. But the claim of universality that is inherent in moral discourses, always fail. The implication is that people who expect moral philosophy to be an advising knowledge become disappointed and perplexed. This is confirmed by the outcome of empirical research on justice among workers. To explain the dilemma of justice – claiming for universality and being particularistic and part of historical state form – the article takes up arguments developed by Marx and Horkheimer on justice as an ideological form.


2005 ◽  
Vol 3 (3) ◽  
pp. 273-298
Author(s):  
Robert F. Ladenson

This article analyzes the zero-reject policy at the core of American special education law from the standpoint of morality, by examining the policy in terms of the following three moral theories: utilitarianism, Rawlsian Kantianism (justice as fairness) and neo-Aristotelianism, as developed recently by Martha Nussbaum in her capabilities account of social justice.Although on first impression, none of these theories seems to provide a framework within which to develop a plausible defense of the zero-reject policy, on deeper analysis there are plausible arguments in support of the policy from the perspectives of all three theories. The analysis supporting this conclusion leads to an enhanced appreciation of the conceptual resources that major philosophical theories of morality provide to understand the moral bases of the most important educational rights, under American special education law, of children with severe to profound physical and cognitive disabilities.


Author(s):  
Samuel Freeman

This chapter discusses the application of Rawls’s principles of justice to private law, or the law of legal relationships between individuals, including the law of property, contracts, and torts. Some have argued that Rawls’s principles of justice apply only to public law—legislation affecting government’s relationships to individuals. This chapter contends that the first principle plays a crucial role in assessing and determining private law; moreover, fair equality of opportunity and the difference principle are to be applied to the assessment of many rules of private law. The difference principle addresses the question of how a society is to fairly design and efficiently organize the institutions that make economic cooperation possible among free and equal persons actively engaged in productive activity. Certain core legal institutions, including property and economic contract, are necessary for economic cooperation and are among the institutions covered by the second principle of justice.


Author(s):  
Amy E. Eckert

The social contract tradition derives its ethical force from the hypothetical agreement that parties would reach in an initial choice situation. This initial choice situation brings together a description of the circumstances of justice, various extra-contractarian moral assumptions, and an instrumental theory of rational choice. The circumstances of justice refer to the conditions that require principles of justice. These conditions include the existence of social cooperation along with moderate scarcity. In the absence of such conditions, principles of justice are either unnecessary or impossible to sustain. Social cooperation generates both benefits and burdens, and it is the allocation of those components of social cooperation that requires principles of justice. The application of the social contract to the domestic context dates back to the ancient Greeks, though their version of the contract was somewhat crude and rather one-sided in favor of state authority. Later versions of the social contract would oblige the state to provide much more to citizens in return for their allegiance. John Rawls is widely credited with resurrecting the social contract tradition in the twentieth century. His thought holds special significance for the international social contract, as he extends the contractual approach ethics into the international system where his predecessors declined to do so.


Hypatia ◽  
1993 ◽  
Vol 8 (3) ◽  
pp. 48-60 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jasminka Udovicki

The essay examines the impartialist view of justice as the first virtue of all relationships. I argue that in close associations where duties, obligations, and rights of persons are situationally contingent, abstract principles of justice fail to yield a unified moral perspective about what is fair. Solidarity and trust as moral emotions develop more complex moral competencies that go beyond what principles of justice alone require.


2008 ◽  
Vol 41 (4) ◽  
pp. 1003-1021
Author(s):  
Mark Blythe

Abstract. In developing his theory “Justice as Fairness,” John Rawls imagined a hypothetical initial situation designed to yield principles of justice to regulate society's main institutions, or what he called the “basic structure.” The positing of citizens as fully capable in this hypothetical “original position” allowed Rawls to consider advantage in terms of the primary social goods (all-purpose means) a citizen held. Rawls reasoned that the representatives of free and equal citizens would design principles of justice that yield equal liberties and “a fair equality of opportunity,” while ensuring that permissible inequalities are those which “contribute effectively to the benefit of the least-advantaged” citizens (2001: 64). This essay considers two criticisms of the Rawlsian approach to distributive justice made by capability theorists (principally, Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum). Sen's criticism is that primary social goods will not be equally usable by citizens because of variances in functional capabilities. Extending Sen's criticism, Nussbaum argues that disadvantaged citizens are not represented in the selection of the principles of justice, and this is problematic for a theory that emphasizes a fair equality of opportunity, especially for society's least advantaged members. This paper argues that the Rawlsian approach can successfully respond to and accommodate these concerns. The main ideas are as follows: (1) The representatives in “the original position” are to represent the known range of citizen capability rather than the normal range. (2) Rawls's two principles of justice would still be chosen, but these would be preceded by a lexically prior principle of basic citizen capabilities, which Rawls characterized as the “two moral powers” (rationality and reasonableness). (3) The desirability of other functional capabilities (those which enable persons to use primary social goods to realize their ends) and their development are to be publicly debated.Résumé. En développant sa théorie dans «La justice comme équité» John Rawls a imaginé une situation initiale hypothétique, conçue de telle sorte qu'elle produise des principes de justice régissant les principales institutions de la société, ou ce qu'il a appelé «la structure de base». Le positionnement des citoyens comme jouissant de toutes leurs capacités dans cette «position originelle» hypothétique a permis à Rawls de considérer la notion d'avantage en termes de biens sociaux primaires (moyens adéquats à tous les buts) détenus par le citoyen ou la citoyenne. Rawls maintenait alors que les représentants de citoyens égaux et libres concevraient des principes de justice produisant des libertés égales et une «juste égalité des chances», et ceci tout en s'assurant que les inégalités permises soient celles qui «bénéficient efficacement aux [citoyens] les moins avantagés» (2001 : 64). Cet article considère deux critiques faites à l'approche Rawlsienne de la justice distributive par les théoriciens des capacités (notamment Amartya Sen et Martha Nussbaum). La critique de Sen objecte que les biens sociaux primaires ne seront pas une égalité utilisable par les citoyens à cause des variations de leurs capacités fonctionnelles. Poursuivant la critique de Sen, Nussbaum montre que les citoyens désavantagés ne sont pas représentés lors de la sélection des principes de justice, ce qui est est problématique pour une théorie qui met l'accent sur une juste égalité des chances, en particulier pour les membres les plus défavorisés de la société. Le présent article soutient que l'approche Rawlsienne peut répondre avec succès à ces objections et s'en accommoder. Les idées principales suivantes seront développées : (1) les représentants dans la position originelle sont censés représenter l'éventail connu des capacités des citoyens plutôt que l'éventail normal; (2) les deux principes de justice de Rawls seraient toujours choisis, mais ceux-ci seraient alors précédés par un principe, lexicalement prioritaire, de capacités de base des citoyens, principe que Rawls a caractérisé comme les deux pouvoirs moraux (rationnel et raisonnable) (3) La désirabilité des autres capacités fonctionnelles (celles qui donnent aux personnes la possibilité d'user de biens sociaux primaires afin de réaliser leurs fins) et leur développement sont des questions qui doivent être débattues publiquement.


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