Transcriptome analysis of fasting caecotrophy on hepatic lipid metabolism in New Zealand rabbits

Background: Rabbit produce two kinds of feces: hard and soft feces, and they have a preference for consuming the latter. Although this habit of rabbits has been reported for many years, little is known on whether this behavior will impact growth performance and metabolism. The RNA-Seq technology is an effective means of analyzing transcript groups to clarify molecular mechanisms. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of fasting caecotrophy on growth performance and lipid metabolism in rabbits. Results: Our results indicated that, compared with the control group, the final body weight, weight gain, liver weight, specific growth rate and feed conversion ratio were all decreased in the experimental group (P<0.05). Oil red staining of the liver tissue indicated that fasting caecotrophy resulted in decrease of lipid droplet accumulation. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) analysis revealed a total of 301.2 million raw reads approximately 45.06 Gb of high-quality clean data. The data were mapped to the rabbit genome (http://www.ensembl.org/Oryctolagus_cuniculus). After a five step filtering process, 14964 genes were identified, including 444 differentially expressed genes (P<0.05, foldchange≥1). Especially for remarkable changes of genes related to lipid metabolism, RT-PCR further validated the remarkable decrease of these genes in fasting caecotrophy group, including CYP7A1, PPARG, ABCA1, ABCB1, ABCG1, GPAM, SREBP, etc. KEGG annotation of the differentially expressed genes indicated that the main pathways affected were retinol metabolism, pentose and glucuronide interactions, starch and sucrose metabolism, fatty acid degradation, steroid hormone biosynthesis. Conclusion: In conclusion, the present study revealed that banning caecotrophy reduced growth rate and altered lipid metabolism, our results laid instructive basis for rabbit feeding and production. These data also provides a reference for studying the effects of soft feces on other small herbivores.

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Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Sugarcane Response to Aluminum Stress by RNA-Seq

10.20944/preprints202010.0158.v1 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Thiago Mateus Rosa-Santos ◽

Renan Gonçalves da Silva ◽

Poornasree Kumar ◽

Pratibha Kottapalli ◽

Chiquito Crasto ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Differentially Expressed Genes ◽

Molecular Mechanisms ◽

Aluminum Tolerance ◽

Differentially Expressed ◽

Rna Seq ◽

Aluminum Stress ◽

Physiological Processes ◽

Aluminum Ions ◽

Detoxification Mechanism ◽

Genomic Studies

Sugarcane is an important sugar-source crop. As any other plant, it can be exposed to several abiotic stress conditions. Though some metals contribute to critical physiological processes in plants, the presence of aluminum ions (Al3+) can be very toxic. In order to develop plants that flourish in acidic soils, it is critical to gain insights into the molecular mechanisms of sugarcane response to aluminum stress. To determine the genes involved in sugarcane response to aluminum stress we generated 372 million paired-end RNA sequencing reads, from roots of CTC-2 and RB855453 two contrasting cultivars. Data normalization resulted in 162,161 contigs and 97,335 trinity genes. After the read cutoff, the differentially expressed genes were 4,858 in CTC-2 and 1,307 in the RB855453, Treatment Vs Control, respectively. The differentially expressed genes were annotated into 34 functional categories. The majority of the genes were upregulated in the CTC-2 (tolerant cultivar) and down regulated in RB855453 (sensitive cultivar). Here, we present the first root-transcriptome of sugarcane under aluminum stress. The results and conclusions of this study provide a valuable resource for future genetic and genomic studies in sugarcane. This transcriptome analysis points out that sugarcane tolerance to aluminum may be explained by an efficient detoxification mechanism combined with the lateral root formation and activation of redox enzymes. Following our results, we present here, a hypothetical model for the aluminum tolerance in CTC-2 cultivar.

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Insights into the Synthesis, Secretion and Curing of Barnacle Cyprid Adhesive via Transcriptomic and Proteomic Analyses of the Cement Gland

Marine Drugs ◽

10.3390/md18040186 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 18 (4) ◽

pp. 186

Author(s):

Guoyong Yan ◽

Jin Sun ◽

Zishuai Wang ◽

Pei-Yuan Qian ◽

Lisheng He

Keyword(s):

Differentially Expressed Genes ◽

Molecular Mechanisms ◽

Lysyl Oxidase ◽

Enrichment Analysis ◽

Salivary Secretion ◽

Cement Gland ◽

Differentially Expressed ◽

Model Organisms ◽

Rna Seq ◽

Secretion Pathway

Barnacles represent one of the model organisms used for antifouling research, however, knowledge regarding the molecular mechanisms underlying barnacle cyprid cementation is relatively scarce. Here, RNA-seq was used to obtain the transcriptomes of the cement glands where adhesive is generated and the remaining carcasses of Megabalanus volcano cyprids. Comparative transcriptomic analysis identified 9060 differentially expressed genes, with 4383 upregulated in the cement glands. Four cement proteins, named Mvcp113k, Mvcp130k, Mvcp52k and Mvlcp1-122k, were detected in the cement glands. The salivary secretion pathway was significantly enriched in the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis of the differentially expressed genes, implying that the secretion of cyprid adhesive might be analogous to that of saliva. Lysyl oxidase had a higher expression level in the cement glands and was speculated to function in the curing of cyprid adhesive. Furthermore, the KEGG enrichment analysis of the 352 proteins identified in the cement gland proteome partially confirmed the comparative transcriptomic results. These results present insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the synthesis, secretion and curing of barnacle cyprid adhesive and provide potential molecular targets for the development of environmentally friendly antifouling compounds.

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RNA-Seq Analysis Identifies Differentially Expressed Genes in Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue in Qaidaford Cattle, Cattle-Yak, and Angus Cattle

Animals ◽

10.3390/ani9121077 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 9 (12) ◽

pp. 1077 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Chengchuang Song ◽

Yongzhen Huang ◽

Zhaoxin Yang ◽

Yulin Ma ◽

Buren Chaogetu ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Adipose Tissue ◽

Meat Quality ◽

Differentially Expressed Genes ◽

Transcriptome Analysis ◽

Cell Metabolism ◽

Differentially Expressed ◽

Receptor Interaction ◽

Control Group ◽

Rna Seq ◽

Angus Cattle

In the beef industry, fat tissue is closely related to meat quality. In this study, high-throughput RNA sequencing was utilized for adipose tissue transcriptome analysis between cattle-yak, Qaidamford cattle, and Angus cattle. The screening and identification of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between different breeds of cattle would facilitate cattle breeding. Compared to Angus cattle adipose tissue, a total of 4167 DEGs were identified in cattle-yak adipose tissue and 3269 DEGs were identified in Qaidamford cattle adipose tissue. Considering cattle-yak as a control group, 154 DEGs were identified in Qaidamford cattle adipose tissue. GO analysis indicated the significant enrichment of some DEGs related to lipid metabolism. The KEGG pathway database was also used to map DEGs and revealed that most annotated genes were involved in ECM-receptor interaction and the PI3K-Akt signal pathway, which are closely related to cell metabolism. Eight selected DEGs related to adipose tissue development or metabolism were verified by RT-qPCR, indicating the reliability of the RNA-seq data. The results of this comparative transcriptome analysis of adipose tissue and screening DEGs suggest several candidates for further investigations of meat quality in different cattle breeds.

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Effect of hyperoside on cervical cancer cells and transcriptome analysis of differentially expressed genes

Cancer Cell International ◽

10.1186/s12935-019-0953-4 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 19 (1) ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

Weikang Guo ◽

Hui Yu ◽

Lu Zhang ◽

Xiuwei Chen ◽

Yunduo Liu ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Cervical Cancer ◽

Cell Proliferation ◽

Differentially Expressed Genes ◽

Interaction Network ◽

Differentially Expressed ◽

Control Group ◽

Rna Seq ◽

Network Construction ◽

Target Network ◽

Key Genes

Abstract Background Hyperoside (Hy) is a plant-derived quercetin 3-d-galactoside that exhibits inhibitory activities on various tumor types. The objective of the current study was to explore Hy effects on cervical cancer cell proliferation, and to perform a transcriptome analysis of differentially expressed genes. Methods Cervical cancer HeLa and C-33A cells were cultured and the effect of Hy treatment was determined using the Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) assay. After calculating the IC50 of Hy in HeLa and C-33A cells, the more sensitive to Hy treatment cell type was selected for RNA-Seq. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified by comparing gene expression between the Hy and control groups. Candidate genes were determined through DEG analysis, protein interaction network (PPI) construction, PPI module analysis, transcription factor (TF) prediction, TF-target network construction, and survival analysis. Finally, the key candidate genes were verified by RT-qPCR and western blot. Results Hy inhibited HeLa and C33A cell proliferation in a dose- and time-dependent manner, as determined by the CCK-8 assay. Treatment of C-33A cells with 2 mM Hy was selected for the subsequent experiments. Compared with the control group, 754 upregulated and 509 downregulated genes were identified after RNA-Seq. After functional enrichment, 74 gene ontology biological processes and 43 Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathways were obtained. According to the protein interaction network (PPI), PPI module analysis, TF-target network construction, and survival analysis, the key genes MYC, CNKN1A, PAX2, TFRC, ACOX2, UNC5B, APBA1, PRKACA, PEAR1, COL12A1, CACNA1G, PEAR1, and CCNA2 were detected. RT-qPCR was performed on the key genes, and Western blot was used to verify C-MYC and TFRC. C-MYC and TFRC expressions were lower and higher than the corresponding values in the control group, respectively, in accordance with the results from the RNA-Seq analysis. Conclusion Hy inhibited HeLa and C-33A cell proliferation through C-MYC gene expression reduction in C-33A cells and TFRC regulation. The results of the current study provide a theoretical basis for Hy treatment of cervical cancer.

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Comprehensive analysis of differential expression profiles via transcriptome sequencing in SH-SY5Y cells infected with CV-A16

PLoS ONE ◽

10.1371/journal.pone.0241174 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 15 (11) ◽

pp. e0241174

Author(s):

Yajie Hu ◽

Zhen Yang ◽

Shenglan Wang ◽

Danxiong Sun ◽

Mingmei Zhong ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Differentially Expressed Genes ◽

Transcriptome Sequencing ◽

Molecular Mechanisms ◽

Expression Profiles ◽

Transcriptome Profiling ◽

Differentially Expressed ◽

Control Group ◽

Protein Coding ◽

Qrt Pcr ◽

Protein Coding Genes

Coxsackievirus A16 (CV-A16) is one of the viruses that is most frequently associated with hand-foot-and-mouth disease (HFMD). Previous studies have shown that CV-A16 infections are mostly self-limiting, but in recent years, it has been gradually found that CV-A16 infections can also induce neurological complications and eventually cause death in children with HFMD. Moreover, no curative drugs or preventative vaccines have been developed for CV-A16 infection. Therefore, it is particularly important to investigate the mechanism of CV-A16 infection-induced neuropathy. In the current study, transcriptome sequencing technology was used to identify changes in the transcriptome of SH-SY5Y cells infected with CV-A16, which might hide the mechanism of CV-A16-induced neuropathology. The transcriptome profiling showed that 82,406,974, 108,652,260 and 97,753,565 clean reads were obtained in the Control, CV-A16-12 h and CV-A16-24 h groups, respectively. And it was further detected that a total of 136 and 161 differentially expressed genes in CV-A16-12 h and CV-A16-24 h groups, respectively, when compared with Control group. Then, to explore the mechanism of CV-A16 infection, we focused on the common differentially expressed genes at different time points of CV-A16 infection and found that there were 34 differentially expressed genes based on which clustering analysis and functional category enrichment analysis were performed. The results indicated that changes in oxidation levels were particularly evident in the GO term analysis, while only the “Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor pathway” was enriched in the KEGG pathway analysis, which might be closely related to the neurotoxicity caused by CV-A16 infection. Meanwhile, the ID2 closely related to nervous system has been demonstrated to be increased during CV-A16 infection. Additionally, the data on differentially expressed non-protein-coding genes of different types within the transcriptome sequencing results were analyzed, and it was speculated that these dysregulated non-protein-coding genes played a pivotal role in CV-A16 infection. Ultimately, qRT-PCR was utilized to validate the transcriptome sequencing findings, and the results of qRT-PCR were in agreement with the transcriptome sequencing data. In conclusion, transcriptome profiling was carried out to analyze response of SH-SY5Y cells to CV-A16 infection. And our findings provide important information to elucidate the possible molecular mechanisms which were linked to the neuropathogenesis of CV-A16 infection.

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Study on the Effect of Macrophages on Vascular Endothelium in Mice With Different TCM Syndromes of Dyslipidemia and its Biological Basis Based on RNA-Seq Technology

Frontiers in Pharmacology ◽

10.3389/fphar.2021.665635 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 12 ◽

Author(s):

Jing Chen ◽

Chao Ye ◽

Zheng Yang ◽

Tieshan Wang ◽

Bing Xu ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Quality Assessment ◽

Differentially Expressed Genes ◽

Normal Control ◽

Normal Control Group ◽

Differentially Expressed ◽

Control Group ◽

Biological Processes ◽

Rna Seq ◽

Pathogenic Factors ◽

Protective Processes

Background: “Treating the same disease with different methods” is a Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) therapeutic concept suggesting that, while patients may be diagnosed with the same disease, they may also have different syndromes that require distinct drug administrations.Objective: This study aimed to identify the differentially expressed genes and related biological processes in dyslipidemia in relation to phlegm–dampness retention (PDR) syndrome and spleen and kidney Yang deficiency (SKYD) syndrome using transcriptomic analysis.Methods: Ten ApoE−/− mice were used for the establishment of dyslipidemic disease–syndrome models via multifactor-hybrid modeling, with five in the PDR group and five in the SKYD group. Additionally, five C57BL/6J mice were employed as a normal control group. Test model-quality aortic endothelial macrophages in mice were screened using flow cytometry. Transcriptomic analysis was performed for macrophages using RNA-Seq.Results: A quality assessment of the disease–syndrome model showed that levels of lipids significantly increased in the PDR and SKYD groups, compared to the normal control group, p < 0.05. Applying, in addition, hematoxylin and eosin staining of aorta, the disease model was also successfully established. A quality assessment of the syndrome models showed that mice in the PDR group presented with typical manifestations of PDR syndrome, and mice in the SKYD group had related manifestations of SKYD syndrome, indicating that the syndrome models were successfully constructed as well. After comparing the differentially expressed gene expressions in macrophages of the dyslipidemic mice with different syndromes, 4,142 genes were identified with statistical significance, p < 0.05. Gene ontology analysis for the differentially expressed genes showed that the biological process of difference between the PDR group and the SKYD group included both adverse and protective processes.Conclusion: The differentially expressed genes between PDR syndrome and SKYD syndrome indicate different biological mechanisms between the onsets of the two syndromes. They have distinctive biological processes, including adverse and protective processes that correspond to the invasion of pathogenic factors into the body and the fight of healthy Qi against pathogenic factors, respectively, according to TCM theory. Our results provide biological evidence for the TCM principle of “treating the same disease with different treatments.”

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Efficacy of Kalo Jeera seeds (Nigella sativa) and Thankuni (Centella asiatica) supplementation on the growth performance of broiler chicken

International Journal of Scientific Reports ◽

10.18203/issn.2454-2156.intjscirep20150670 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 1 (4) ◽

pp. 196

Author(s):

Chandan Kumar Sarkar ◽

Mahbub Mostofa ◽

Md. Mahmudul Hasan Sikder ◽

Wahedul Karim Ansari ◽

Md. Mostakin Ahamed ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Growth Rate ◽

Body Weight ◽

Treatment Group ◽

Growth Performance ◽

Nigella Sativa ◽

Centella Asiatica ◽

Control Group ◽

Growth Promoter ◽

Final Body Weight ◽

Group B

Background: In modern era, treatment methods become diversified and developed day by day and organic medicine is one of the modern technology which also introduced in our poultry sector. This experiment was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of Thankuni (Centella asiatica) and Kalo Jeera (Nigella sativa) powdered supplementation as a growth promoter in broiler chickens.Methods: A total of 20 day-old Cobb 500 broiler chicks were randomly divided into two groups, A and B after seven days of acclimatization. The group A was kept as control and fed on only normal balanced diet. The group B was treatment group fed on normal diet with additional supplementation of Thankuni and Kalo Jeera powder in water. For observation of growth rate, live body weight was taken at first day and every seven days interval up to 5th weeks. Besides it hematological tests were performed at 35th days for searching hematological changes in both groups. Results: The initial body weight of groups A and Bon 1st day of this experiment were 43.00 ± 0.56 gm and 42.50 ± 0.35 gm, respectively and after 35th day of experiment final body weight were 1450 ± 57.35 gm and 1700 ± 58.56 gm (p<1%) respectively. The growth rate of treatment group B was 17.24% more (p<1%) than that of control birds. Although the dressing percentage of both group was equal but relative weight of heart, liver, spleen and pancreas were significantly higher (p<0.1) in treatment group indicates better flock health. Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) were 1.88 in treated birds and 2.28 in control birds was the sign of economy rate of production and were analyzed and found that net profit per broiler was Tk. 10.50 (0.12 USD) and Tk. 33.00 (0.4 USD), respectively. General blood parameters of treatment group were non-significantly higher than control group. Conclusions: The results suggest that better growth performance were achieved in broilers supplemented with Thankuni leaf and Kalo Jeera. Both of these two herbal medicines have antimicrobial, immunostimulatory, anti-stress, fungi static, insecticidal and liver tonic properties so that there were no mortality rate. Now it can be said that uses of Thankuni and Kalo Jeera has beneficiary effects in broiler production.

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Dysregulated BMP2 in the Placenta May Contribute to Early-Onset Preeclampsia by Regulating Human Trophoblast Expression of Extracellular Matrix and Adhesion Molecules

Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology ◽

10.3389/fcell.2021.768669 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 9 ◽

Author(s):

Yuyin Yi ◽

Hua Zhu ◽

Christian Klausen ◽

Hsun-Ming Chang ◽

Amy M. Inkster ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Extracellular Matrix ◽

Differentially Expressed Genes ◽

Early Onset ◽

Molecular Mechanisms ◽

Differentially Expressed ◽

Bone Morphogenetic Protein 2 ◽

Rna Seq ◽

Placental Development ◽

Human Trophoblast ◽

Early Onset Preeclampsia

Many pregnancy disorders, including early-onset preeclampsia (EOPE), are associated with defects in placental trophoblast cell invasion and differentiation during early placental development. Bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2) belongs to the TGF-β superfamily and controls various physiological and developmental processes. However, the expression of BMP2 in the placenta and underlying molecular mechanisms of how BMP2 regulates trophoblast function remain unclear. In this study, we analyzed several publicly available microarray and RNA-seq datasets and revealed differences in expression of TGF-β superfamily members between gestational age-matched non-preeclamptic control and EOPE placentas. Importantly, BMP2 levels were significantly reduced in EOPE placentas compared with controls, and RNAscope in situ hybridization further demonstrated BMP2 expression was disrupted in EOPE placental villi. To explore the molecular mechanisms of BMP2-regulated early trophoblast differentiation, we examined BMP2 expression in first-trimester human placenta and found it to be localized to all subtypes of trophoblasts and the decidua. RNA-seq analysis on control and BMP2-treated primary human trophoblast cells identified 431 differentially expressed genes, including several canonical TGF-β/BMP signaling targets (BAMBI, ID1, INHBA, IGFBP3). Gene ontology annotations revealed that differentially expressed genes were involved in cell adhesion and extracellular matrix organization. Furthermore, we identified adhesion molecule with IgG-like domain 2 (AMIGO2) as a novel target for BMP2 that contributed to BMP2-induced trophoblast invasion and endothelial-like tube formation. Overall, our findings provide insight into the molecular processes controlled by BMP2 during early placental development that may contribute to the pathogenesis of EOPE.

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Analysis of molecular mechanism for acceleration of polyembryony using gene functional annotation pipeline in Copidosoma floridanum

10.21203/rs.2.9609/v3 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Takuma Sakamoto ◽

Maaya Nishiko ◽

Hidemasa Bono ◽

Takeru Nakazato ◽

Jin Yoshimura ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Differentially Expressed Genes ◽

Molecular Interaction ◽

Functional Annotation ◽

Molecular Mechanisms ◽

Fatty Acid Biosynthesis ◽

Interaction Analysis ◽

Differentially Expressed ◽

Control Group ◽

Copidosoma Floridanum ◽

Human Genes

Abstract Background: Polyembryony is defined as the formation of several embryos from a single egg. This phenomenon can occur in humans, armadillo, and some endoparasitoid insects. However, the mechanism underlying polyembryogenesis in animals remains to be elucidated. The polyembryonic parasitoid wasp Copidosoma floridanum oviposits its egg into an egg of the host insect; eventually, over 2,000 individuals will arise from one egg. Previously, we reported that polyembryogenesis is enhanced when the juvenile hormone (JH) added to the culture medium in the embryo culture. Hence, in the present study, we performed RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) analysis to investigate the molecular mechanisms controlling polyembryogenesis of C. floridanum . Functional annotation of genes is not fully available for C.floridanum ; however, whole genome assembly has been archived. Hence, we constructed a pipeline for gene functional annotation in C. floridanum and performed molecular network analysis. We analyzed differentially expressed genes between control and JH-treated molura after 48 h of culture, then used the tblastx program to assign whole C. floridanum transcripts to human gene. Results: We obtained 11,117 transcripts in the JH treatment group and identified 217 differentially expressed genes compared with the control group. As a result, 76% of C. floridanum transcripts were assigned to human genes. Gene enrichment analysis revealed genes associated with platelet degranulation, fatty acid biosynthesis, cell morphogenesis in the differentiation and integrin signaling pathways were fluctuated following JH treatment. Furthermore, Cytoscape analysis revealed a molecular interaction that was possibly associated with polyembryogenesis . Conclusions: We have constructed a pipeline for gene functional annotation of C. floridanum , and identified transcripts with high similarity to human genes during early embryo developmental. Additionally, this study reveals new molecular interactions associated with polyembryogenesis; these interactions could indicate the molecular mechanisms underlying polyembryony. Our results highlight the potential utility of molecular interaction analysis in human twins.

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Transcriptome profiling of differentially expressed genes of male and female inflorescences in spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.)

Genome ◽

10.1139/gen-2020-0122 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Zhiyuan Liu ◽

Haoying Wang ◽

Zhaosheng Xu ◽

Helong Zhang ◽

Guoliang Li ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Sex Determination ◽

Differentially Expressed Genes ◽

Molecular Mechanisms ◽

Spinacia Oleracea ◽

Transcriptome Profiling ◽

Vital Role ◽

Differentially Expressed ◽

Rna Seq ◽

Male And Female ◽

Spinacia Oleracea L

Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) is commonly considered a dioecious plant with heterogametic (XY) and homogametic (XX) sex chromosomes. The characteristic is also utilized for the production of spinach hybrid seeds. However, the molecular mechanisms of sex determination in spinach are still unclear because of a lack of genomic and transcriptomic information. In this study, RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) was performed in male and female inflorescences to provide insight into the molecular basis of sex determination in spinach. Comparative transcriptome analyses showed that 2,278 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified between male and female inflorescences. A high correlation between the RNA-Seq and qRT-PCR validation for DEGs was observed. Among these, 182 DEGs were annotated to transcription factors including the MYB family protein, bHLH family, and MADS family, suggesting these factors might play a vital role in sex determination. Moreover, 26 DEGs related to flower development, including nine ABCE class genes, were detected. Expression analyses of hormone pathways showed that brassinosteroids may be key hormones related to sex determination in spinach. Overall, this study provides a large amount of DEGs related to sexual expression and lays a foundation for unraveling the regulatory mechanism of sex determination in spinach.

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