History of Controlled Environment Horticulture: Indoor Farming and Its Key Technologies

The most recent platform for protected horticultural crop production, with the shortest history to date, is located entirely indoors, lacking even the benefit of free, natural sunlight. Although this may not sound offhand like a good idea for commercial specialty-crop production, the concept of indoor controlled-environment plant growth started originally for the benefit of researchers—to systematically investigate effects of specific environmental factors on plant growth and development in isolation from environmental factors varying in uncontrolled ways that would confound or change experimental findings. In addition to its value for basic and applied research, it soon was discovered that providing nonlimiting plant-growth environments greatly enhanced crop yield and enabled manipulation of plant development in ways that were never previously possible. As supporting technology for indoor crop production has improved in capability and efficiency, energy requirements have declined substantially for growing crops through entire production cycles in completely controlled environments, and this combination has spawned a new sector of the controlled-environment crop-production industry. This article chronicles the evolution of events, enabling technologies, and entrepreneurial efforts that have brought local, year-round indoor crop production to the forefront of public visibility and the threshold of profitability for a growing number of specialty crops in locations with seasonal climates.

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Opportunities and limits of controlled-environment plant phenotyping for climate response traits

Theoretical and Applied Genetics ◽

10.1007/s00122-021-03892-1 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Anna Langstroff ◽

Marc C. Heuermann ◽

Andreas Stahl ◽

Astrid Junker

Keyword(s):

Crop Production ◽

Field Trials ◽

Plant Phenotyping ◽

Controlled Environment ◽

Climate Response ◽

Negative Effects ◽

Phenotypic Data ◽

Non Invasive ◽

Controlled Environments ◽

Response Traits

AbstractRising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns will affect agricultural production substantially, exposing crops to extended and more intense periods of stress. Therefore, breeding of varieties adapted to the constantly changing conditions is pivotal to enable a quantitatively and qualitatively adequate crop production despite the negative effects of climate change. As it is not yet possible to select for adaptation to future climate scenarios in the field, simulations of future conditions in controlled-environment (CE) phenotyping facilities contribute to the understanding of the plant response to special stress conditions and help breeders to select ideal genotypes which cope with future conditions. CE phenotyping facilities enable the collection of traits that are not easy to measure under field conditions and the assessment of a plant‘s phenotype under repeatable, clearly defined environmental conditions using automated, non-invasive, high-throughput methods. However, extrapolation and translation of results obtained under controlled environments to field environments is ambiguous. This review outlines the opportunities and challenges of phenotyping approaches under controlled environments complementary to conventional field trials. It gives an overview on general principles and introduces existing phenotyping facilities that take up the challenge of obtaining reliable and robust phenotypic data on climate response traits to support breeding of climate-adapted crops.

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Beyond Scale and Scope: Exploring Economic Drivers of U.S. Specialty Crop Production With an Application to Edamame

Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems ◽

10.3389/fsufs.2020.582834 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 4 ◽

Author(s):

Clinton L. Neill ◽

Kimberly L. Morgan

Keyword(s):

Crop Production ◽

Economies Of Scale ◽

Future Research ◽

Market Demand ◽

Key Factors ◽

Specialty Crops ◽

Row Crops ◽

Specialty Crop ◽

Alternative Crop ◽

High Reward

Specialty crops are considered high-risk, high-reward, yet growers face differing, and relatively larger risk exposure when compared to traditional row crops. With traditional row crops, economies of scale and scope are key factors to increasing economic profitability. However, increasing economic profit for specialty crop operations present challenges which limit grower ability to easily take advantage of scale and scope economies. The authors discuss production, finance, regulatory, price, and human resource risks unique to U.S.-grown specialty crops. We apply our economic risk assessment framework to analyze U.S. edamame and present strategies to manage and mitigate risks faced by growers. We conclude that edamame may represent a profitable alternative crop in the U.S., and suggest future research topics are needed to optimize yields and meet market demand.

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(295) Measuring and Reporting Growing Conditions in Controlled Environments

HortScience ◽

10.21273/hortsci.40.4.1009b ◽

2005 ◽

Vol 40 (4) ◽

pp. 1009B-1009

Author(s):

Marc W. van Iersel

Keyword(s):

Plant Growth ◽

Environmental Conditions ◽

Working Group ◽

International Committee ◽

Controlled Environment ◽

The North ◽

Controlled Environments ◽

Air Speed ◽

Growing Conditions ◽

Replication Of Experiments

Do you accurately measure and report the growing conditions of your controlled environment experiments? Conditions in controlled environment plant growth rooms and chambers should be reported in detail. This is important to allow replication of experiments on plants, to compare results among facilities, and to avoid artefacts due to uncontrolled variables. The International Committee for Controlled Environment Guidelines, with representatives from the U.K. Controlled Environment Users' Group, the North American Committee on Controlled Environment Technology and Use (NCR-101), and Australasian Controlled Environment Working Group (ACEWG), has developed guidlines to report environmental conditions in controlled environment experiments. These guidelines include measurements of light, temperature, humidity, CO2, air speed, and fertility. A brochure with these guidelines and a sample paragraph on how to include this information in a manuscript will be available.

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Soil Management Practices to Mitigate Nitrous Oxide Emissions and Inform Emission Factors in Arid Irrigated Specialty Crop Systems

Soil Systems ◽

10.3390/soilsystems3040076 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 3 (4) ◽

pp. 76

Author(s):

Xia Zhu-Barker ◽

Mark Easter ◽

Amy Swan ◽

Mary Carlson ◽

Lucas Thompson ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Nitrous Oxide ◽

Crop Production ◽

Management Practices ◽

Ghg Emissions ◽

Soil Management ◽

Emission Factors ◽

Nitrous Oxide Emissions ◽

Specialty Crops ◽

Specialty Crop ◽

The Impact

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from arid irrigated agricultural soil in California have been predicted to represent 8% of the state’s total GHG emissions. Although specialty crops compose the majority of the state’s crops in both economic value and land area, the portion of GHG emissions contributed by them is still highly uncertain. Current and emerging soil management practices affect the mitigation of those emissions. Herein, we review the scientific literature on the impact of soil management practices in California specialty crop systems on GHG nitrous oxide emissions. As such studies from most major specialty crop systems in California are limited, we focus on two annual and two perennial crops with the most data from the state: tomato, lettuce, wine grapes and almond. Nitrous oxide emission factors were developed and compared to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) emission factors, and state-wide emissions for these four crops were calculated for specific soil management practices. Dependent on crop systems and specific management practices, the emission factors developed in this study were either higher, lower or comparable to IPCC emission factors. Uncertainties caused by low gas sampling frequency in these studies were identified and discussed. These uncertainties can be remediated by robust and standardized estimates of nitrous oxide emissions from changes in soil management practices in California specialty crop systems. Promising practices to reduce nitrous oxide emissions and meet crop production goals, pertinent gaps in knowledge on this topic and limitations of this approach are discussed.

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Response of Small Farmers in Missouri to a Specialty Crop Survey

HortScience ◽

10.21273/hortsci.39.4.844a ◽

2004 ◽

Vol 39 (4) ◽

pp. 844A-844

Author(s):

Wesseh J. Wollo* ◽

Lurline Marsh ◽

Rufus Jones

Keyword(s):

Crop Production ◽

Return Rate ◽

Small Farmers ◽

Survey Questionnaire ◽

Specialty Crops ◽

Specialty Crop ◽

Crop Agriculture ◽

Traditional Crops

Specialty crop production has the potential to diversify traditional crop agriculture and improve profits. The primary purpose of this research was to determine the number of small farmers in Missouri who grow crops other than the traditional crops (soybeans, corn, wheat, cotton), and to identify issues they face in their production. A survey questionnaire consisting of fifteen questions was sent to 401 small farmers in Missouri in Fall 2002. The response was a 27% return rate. Most (77%) of the respondents grew tomato and many (50%) used irrigations. Among those who did not grow the nontraditional crops, 46% cited lack of interest as the reason while 32% cited lack of labor. The reasons given by 80% of respondents who at one time grew nontraditional crops but stopped, were lost interest, profit, and insufficient labor. Many respondents also grew herbs and other specialty vegetables in addition to the nontraditional crops. Garlic and chives were grown by 19% of respondents. Most (80%) respondents who grew specialty crops were interested in seminars, workshops or field days on their production, marketing or financing. Among respondents who grew nontraditional crops but stopped, 39% cited drought as the reason while 25% cited insects. These results indicate that small farmers of specialty crops in Missouri need training and information, to profitably produce the nontraditional crops.

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VARIABILITY OF PLANT GROWTH WITHIN CONTROLLED-ENVIRONMENT CHAMBERS AS RELATED TO TEMPERATURE AND LIGHT DISTRIBUTION

Canadian Journal of Plant Science ◽

10.4141/cjps73-038 ◽

1973 ◽

Vol 53 (1) ◽

pp. 215-220 ◽

Cited By ~ 19

Author(s):

MARY MEASURES ◽

PEARL WEINBERGER ◽

H. BAER

Keyword(s):

Experimental Data ◽

Environmental Factors ◽

Light Intensity ◽

Plant Growth ◽

Growth And Development ◽

Position Effect ◽

Great Variability ◽

Light Distribution ◽

Controlled Environment ◽

Growth Chambers

Measurements of temperature and light intensity were made at different locations within three growth chambers. Environmental factors were found to vary with location. A great variability in the growth and development of cucumber and corn was noted in plants grown within these growth chambers. This "position effect" significantly affected the population homogeneity at the 5% level. The possibility of a bias of experimental data and the requirement for randomization and rotation of plants within a growth chamber are highlighted by the present study.

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Economic Studies Reinforce Efforts to Safeguard Specialty Crops in the United States

Plant Disease ◽

10.1094/pdis-05-20-1061-fe ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 105 (1) ◽

pp. 14-26

Author(s):

M. Fuchs ◽

C. V. Almeyda ◽

M. Al Rwahnih ◽

S. S. Atallah ◽

E. J. Cieniewicz ◽

...

Keyword(s):

United States ◽

Disease Management ◽

Crop Production ◽

The United States ◽

Specialty Crops ◽

Extension Educators ◽

Specialty Crop ◽

Planting Material ◽

Planting Materials ◽

Economic Studies

Pathogen-tested foundation plant stocks are the cornerstone of sustainable specialty crop production. They provide the propagative units that are used to produce clean planting materials, which are essential as the first-line management option of diseases caused by graft-transmissible pathogens such as viruses, viroids, bacteria, and phytoplasmas. In the United States, efforts to produce, maintain, and distribute pathogen-tested propagative material of specialty crops are spearheaded by centers of the National Clean Plant Network (NCPN). Agricultural economists collaborated with plant pathologists, extension educators, specialty crop growers, and regulators to investigate the impacts of select diseases caused by graft-transmissible pathogens and to estimate the return on investments in NCPN centers. Economic studies have proven valuable to the NCPN in (i) incentivizing the use of clean planting material derived from pathogen-tested foundation plant stocks; (ii) documenting benefits of clean plant centers, which can outweigh operating costs by 10:1 to 150:1; (iii) aiding the development of disease management solutions that are not only ecologically driven but also profit maximizing; and (iv) disseminating integrated disease management recommendations that resonate with growers. Together, economic studies have reinforced efforts to safeguard specialty crops in the United States through the production and use of clean planting material.

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Correlation of Circular RNA hsa_circ_0001946, hsa_circ_0125589, and Environmental Factors With Hypertension

American Journal of Hypertension ◽

10.1093/ajh/hpaa114 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 33 (11) ◽

pp. 1047-1047

Author(s):

Wan-yue Liu ◽

Yi Sun ◽

Shu-na Huang ◽

Yu-zhen Lin ◽

Hong-yan Guo ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Environmental Factors ◽

Peripheral Blood ◽

Circular Rna ◽

Peripheral Blood Lymphocytes ◽

Normal Weight ◽

Circular Rnas ◽

Blood Leukocytes ◽

Crossover Analysis ◽

History Of ◽

The Relationship

Abstract Background To investigate the main environmental factors of hypertension and the relationship between hypertension and circular RNAs in peripheral blood lymphocytes. Methods This was a case–control study. A total of 681 hypertension patients and 485 subjects without hypertension were recruited between April 2017 and October 2018. All participations completed the questionnaire investigation, physical examination, and laboratory detection. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction was used to analyze circRNAs (hsa_circ_0001946 and hsa_circ_0125589) in peripheral blood leukocytes in 84 hypertensives and 84 controls. Multivariate logistic regression and crossover analysis were used to analyze the interaction and association between environmental factors and circRNAs in hypertension. Results After adjusted by gender, age and marital status, overweight/obesity (odds ratio (OR) = 1.66, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.24–2.22), abdominal obesity (OR = 2.17, 95% CI 1.54–3.04), anxiety (OR = 2.15, 95% CI 1.41–3.28), family history of hypertension (OR = 4.26, 95% CI 3.18–5.70), and higher levels of hsa_circ_0001946 (OR = 4.13, 95% CI 1.85–9.21) were risk factors for hypertension, while levels of hsa_circ_0125589 were not associated with hypertension. Crossover analysis showed that the risk of hypertension was 13.12 times higher (95% CI 3.89–44.23) in overweight subjects with high hsa_circ_0001946 levels compared with normal weight subjects with low hsa_circ_0001946 levels. Further, the risk of hypertension was 17.78 times higher (95% CI 1.88–168.61) in subjects with anxiety and high hsa_circ_0001946 levels. Conclusions Hypertension is the result of both environmental factors and genetic factors. Higher hsa_circ_0001946 levels, overweight and anxiety may increase the risk of hypertension, while hsa_circ_0125589 levels are not related to hypertension.

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Melatonin as Master Regulator in Plant Growth, Development and Stress Alleviator for Sustainable Agricultural Production: Current Status and Future Perspectives

Sustainability ◽

10.3390/su13010294 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 13 (1) ◽

pp. 294

Author(s):

Khadija Nawaz ◽

Rimsha Chaudhary ◽

Ayesha Sarwar ◽

Bushra Ahmad ◽

Asma Gul ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Gene Expression ◽

Plant Growth ◽

Crop Production ◽

Higher Plants ◽

Regulation Of Gene Expression ◽

Current Status ◽

Master Regulator ◽

Abiotic Stressors ◽

Pathogenesis Related Protein ◽

Growth Development

Melatonin, a multifunctional signaling molecule, is ubiquitously distributed in different parts of a plant and responsible for stimulating several physiochemical responses against adverse environmental conditions in various plant systems. Melatonin acts as an indoleamine neurotransmitter and is primarily considered as an antioxidant agent that can control reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in plants. Melatonin, being a signaling agent, induces several specific physiological responses in plants that might serve to enhance photosynthesis, growth, carbon fixation, rooting, seed germination and defense against several biotic and abiotic stressors. It also works as an important modulator of gene expression related to plant hormones such as in the metabolism of indole-3-acetic acid, cytokinin, ethylene, gibberellin and auxin carrier proteins. Additionally, the regulation of stress-specific genes and the activation of pathogenesis-related protein and antioxidant enzyme genes under stress conditions make it a more versatile molecule. Because of the diversity of action of melatonin, its role in plant growth, development, behavior and regulation of gene expression it is a plant’s master regulator. This review outlines the main functions of melatonin in the physiology, growth, development and regulation of higher plants. Its role as anti-stressor agent against various abiotic stressors, such as drought, salinity, temperatures, UV radiation and toxic chemicals, is also analyzed critically. Additionally, we have also identified many new aspects where melatonin may have possible roles in plants, for example, its function in improving the storage life and quality of fruits and vegetables, which can be useful in enhancing the environmentally friendly crop production and ensuring food safety.

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Agro-Nanotechnology as an Emerging Field: A Novel Sustainable Approach for Improving Plant Growth by Reducing Biotic Stress

Applied Sciences ◽

10.3390/app11052282 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 11 (5) ◽

pp. 2282

Author(s):

Masudulla Khan ◽

Azhar U. Khan ◽

Mohd Abul Hasan ◽

Krishna Kumar Yadav ◽

Marina M. C. Pinto ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Plant Growth ◽

Crop Yield ◽

Biotic Stress ◽

Crop Production ◽

Plant Disease ◽

Yield Loss ◽

Growth Parameters ◽

Plant Diseases ◽

High Yield ◽

Plant Disease Management

In the present era, the global need for food is increasing rapidly; nanomaterials are a useful tool for improving crop production and yield. The application of nanomaterials can improve plant growth parameters. Biotic stress is induced by many microbes in crops and causes disease and high yield loss. Every year, approximately 20–40% of crop yield is lost due to plant diseases caused by various pests and pathogens. Current plant disease or biotic stress management mainly relies on toxic fungicides and pesticides that are potentially harmful to the environment. Nanotechnology emerged as an alternative for the sustainable and eco-friendly management of biotic stress induced by pests and pathogens on crops. In this review article, we assess the role and impact of different nanoparticles in plant disease management, and this review explores the direction in which nanoparticles can be utilized for improving plant growth and crop yield.

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