Cancer is the major cause of death besides cardiovascular disease. Leukaemia represents the most prevalent malignancy in children with a frequency of 30 % and is one of the ten leading types of cancer in adults. Philadelphia Chromosome-positive B-ALL (Ph+ B-ALL) is driven by the cytogenetic aberration of the reciprocal chromosomal translocation t(9;22)(q34;q11) leading to the formation of the Philadelphia chromosome with a BCR-ABL1 fusion gene. This fusion gene encodes a BCR-ABL1 oncoprotein which is characterized by a constitutively enhanced tyrosine kinase activity promoting amplified proliferation, differentiation arrest and resistance to cell death. Ph+ B-ALL is considered the most aggressive ALL subtype with a long-term survival rate in the range of only 30 % despite intensive standard of care including chemotherapy in combination with a tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) followed by allogeneic stem cell transplantation after remission for clinically fit patients. The efficacy of chemotherapy has long been mainly attributed to tumour cell toxicity while immune modulating effects have been overlooked, especially in light of known immunosuppressive properties. Accumulative evidence, however, emphasizes the ability of chemotherapeutic agents, including TKIs, to normalise or re-educate a dysfunctional tumour microenvironment (TME) resulting in enhanced anti-tumour immunity. One of the underlying mechanisms of immune modulation is the induction of immunogenic cell death (ICD). ICD is an anti-tumour agent-induced cell death modality determined by the capacity to convert cancer cells into anti-cancer vaccines. The induction of ICD relies on the release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) from dying tumour cells succumbing to ICD. Translocation of CALR to the cell surface, extracellular secretion of ATP and release of HMGB1 from the nucleus are key hallmarks of ICD that mediate anti-tumour immunity upon binding to antigen presenting cells resulting in a tumour antigen-specific immune response. Besides these molecular determinants, ICD is functionally defined by the inhibition of tumour growth in a vaccination assay in which mice are injected with tumour cells exposed to the potential ICD inducer in-vitro and then re-challenged with live tumour cells of the same cancer type. Both molecular and functional criteria determine the gold standard approach to assess ICD. By increasing the immunogenicity of cancer cells, ICD contributes to the restoration of immunosurveillance as an essential feature of tumour rejection, which is clinically reflected by improved therapeutic efficacy and disease outcome in patients. Therefore, identifying novel ICD inducers is an objective of interest in the context of cancer therapy. In respect of these considerations, the aim addressed in the present work is the examination of the second-generation TKI Nilotinib for the ability to induce ICD. The thesis is set in the context of the group's research on the role of Gas6/TAM signalling within the TME regarding the pathogenesis of acute leukaemia. In in-vivo experiments of our research group it has been consistently observed that the use of Nilotinib enhances the anti-leukaemic immunity mediated by a deletion of Gas6. Against the background of increasing importance of chemotherapeutic agents as potent modulators of a dysregulated TME, it was hypothesized that Nilotinib may synergize with a Gas6-deficient environment by inducing ICD in Ph+ B-ALL cells. In growth inhibition and Annexin V/Propidium iodide cell death assays Nilotinib was shown to induce cell death in concentration-dependent manner that occurs bimodally in terms of cell death modality ranging between apoptosis and necrosis. By ICD marker analysis, comprising flow-cytometric detection of CALR exposure, chemoluminescence-based ATP measurement and immunoblotting for HMGB1, it was found that Nilotinib-induced cell death is not accompanied by CALR exposure and ATP secretion, but is associated with the release of HMGB1. In macrophages co-culture experiments with Nilotinib-treated leukaemic cells, no relevant shift in terms of macrophages activation and polarisation was observed in either a juxtacrine or paracrine setup. In consistency with the results obtained in the in-vitro experiments, Nilotinib was not potent to elicit a protective immune response in mice within a vaccination assay. Conclusively, Nilotinib was identified to not qualify as bona fide ICD inducer. The role of Nilotinib-induced cell death and HMGB1 release are proposed as objective for further investigation concerning the synergistic interplay between Nilotinib and a Gas6-deficient environment. Efforts addressing exploration and optimisation of the immunological potential of chemotherapeutic agents are a promising approach aimed at providing cancer patients with the best possible treatment in future.
Directing the Future Breakthroughs in Immunotherapy: The Importance of a Holistic Approach to the Tumour Microenvironment
