Prevalence of pain and self-medication pattern of Paracetamol and NSAIDs among university students in United Arab Emirates

2021 ◽  
pp. 3393-3398
Author(s):  
Nageeb AGM Hassan ◽  
Sabrina Ait Gacem ◽  
Afnan Abdul-Hameed Al-Qaysi ◽  
Maryam Jaafar AlAani
Keyword(s):  
Back Pain ◽  
University Students ◽  
Negative Correlation ◽  
Mefenamic Acid ◽  
Pain Medication ◽  
The Body ◽  
Menstrual Pain ◽  
Self Medication ◽  
Pain Medications ◽  
Study Results

Background: Most of individuals do not prefer consulting a physician when they suffer from mild to moderate pain or fever and they tend to get over the counter drugs (OTC) from the pharmacy. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAIDs) consumption pattern and self-medication behavior is a common practice especially during adolescence. Many self-medication behaviors were observed from individuals especially students which use NSAIDs frequently and that might lead to some unwanted effects due to improper knowledge and awareness. Although NSAIDs are considered as safe medications in general, but serious side effects are still present and can affect different parts of the body. Objectives: Our study aims to assess the correlation between several types of pain and self-medication pattern of Paracetamol and NSAIDs among university students in UAE. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study that was conducted among individuals aged 17 years and above from different nationalities and specialties from June till July 2018. The data were obtained through a validated self-administrated questionnaire that was distributed as a hardcopy as well as online. Data collection took place in UAE universities targeting 345 university students. The data were analyzed using SPSS version 20 and the results were considered significant at the 0.05 level with a 95% Confidence interval. Results: The current study results show that (67%) of individuals use pain medications to relief pain associated with headache. The majority of individuals reported that they suffer from pain at least one day weekly (26.4%). The pain that mostly led individuals to take pain medications is headache and it is accounts for (67%). The most frequently used pain medication is Paracetamol (80.9%) followed by Ibuprofen, Mefenamic acid and Diclofenac (35.4%, 17.1% and 13.6%) respectively. It was observed that (28.4%) of individuals use more than one pain medication at the same time. The results show that there was a significant correlation between the intake of Mefenamic acid for pain and individuals that reported the use of pain medications for menstrual pain [p=0.000, OR: 5.223, 95% CI: 2.73 - 9.96]. The significant intake of Aspirin for back pain [p=0.020, OR: 3.239, 95% CI: 1.159 - 9.05] and Diclofenac for both muscles pain and back pain back pain [p=0.000, OR: 3.061, 95% CI: 1.792 - 5.228), p=0.000, OR: 3.037, 95% CI: 1.789 - 5.15 respectively] and Paracetamol for both toothache and fever [p=0.002, OR: 1.220, 95% CI: 1.120 - 1.32 and p=0.044, OR: 1.137, 95% CI: 1.027 - 1.259 respectively]. The following NSAIDs showed a significant correlation with the intake of pain medications for toothache: Aspirin [p=0.018, OR: 3.167, 95% CI: 1.171 - 8.56], Ibuprofen [p=0.004, OR: 1.618, 95% CI: 1.201 - 2.17] and Diclofenac [p=0.000, OR: 2.692, 95% CI: 1.591 - 4.55]. Only Paracetamol was found to have a significant correlation for the use during fever [p=0.044, OR: 1.137, 95% CI: 1.027 - 1.259] while other pain medications were found to have a negative correlation. Conclusion: The majority of respondents use the pain medications to relief headache and the most frequently used pain medication was Paracetamol. A significant correlation was observed between the intake of Mefenamic acid for pain and individuals that reported the use of pain medications for menstrual pain as well as Aspirin intake for back pain, Diclofenac for muscles pain and back pain. Only Paracetamol was found to have a significant correlation for the use during fever while other pain medications were found to have a negative correlation.

scholarly journals Social Anxiety in Relation to Self-Esteem among University Students in Jordan

2020 ◽  
Vol 13 (2) ◽  
pp. 96
Author(s):  
Odeh Suleiman Murad
Keyword(s):  
Social Anxiety ◽  
University Students ◽  
Negative Correlation ◽  
Significant Negative Correlation ◽  
Self Esteem ◽  
Personal Traits ◽  
Study Results ◽  
High Level ◽  
The Relationship ◽  
Academic Year

People with social anxiety demonstrate different behavioral aspects such as nervousness, apprehension, fear, and concern that negatively affect their personal traits and self-esteem. The current study is designed to identify the relationship between social anxiety and self-esteem among university students. To achieve this purpose, the descriptive correlation approach was utilized. Social anxiety and self-esteem scales were applied to a sample of 334 university students in Jordan. The study results revealed a low level of social anxiety and a high level of self-esteem among participants. In addition, there was a statistically significant negative correlation between the level of social anxiety and self-esteem among participants. The study recommended holding workshops and seminars for fresh students at the beginning of each academic year, to alleviate their feeling of stress and social anxiety and to raise the level of their self-esteem.

scholarly journals A STUDY OF PATTERN OF SELF-MEDICATION AMONG STUDENTS FOR DYSMENORRHEA

2018 ◽  
Vol 11 (6) ◽  
pp. 436
Author(s):  
Suman Anand ◽  
Tasmia Akhtar ◽  
Bhuvana K
Keyword(s):  
Medical Students ◽  
Nursing Students ◽  
Mefenamic Acid ◽  
Self Medication ◽  
Medical College ◽  
Institutional Ethics ◽  
Pain Medications ◽  
Outpatient Departments ◽  
The Mean ◽  
Control Pain

 Objectives: The objectives of this study were to assess the pattern of self-medication for dysmenorrhea among students and compare it between medical and non-medical students.Methods: The observational study was conducted from May to August 2014. After obtaining the Institutional Ethics Committee approval and written informed consent from all students with dysmenorrhea aged between 18 and 25 years were included in the study. Demographic details such as age and duration of dysmenorrhea per cycle were recorded. A questionnaire comprising 16 questions was administered to medical and nursing students of Sri Devaraj Urs Medical and Nursing Colleges and students attending outpatient departments of R.L.Jalappa Hospital and Research Center attached to Sri Devaraj Urs Medical College. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics.Results: A total of 240 students (93 medical, 84 nursing, and 63 non-medical) were included in the study. The mean age was 20.1±1.8 years (medical), 20.4±1.4 years (nursing), and 21.9±1.8 years (non-medical). 46% medical, 29% non-medical, and 10% nursing students used drugs to control pain. Most commonly used drugs were mefenamic acid + dicyclomine and mefenamic acid. 56% of medical and all non-medical and nursing students did not have knowledge of side effects of drugs. Among the eight nursing students, six self-administered the drug but 54% and 56% of medical and non-medical students, respectively, followed doctor’s advice to use the pain medications. 40% of medical students self-medicated themselves.Conclusion: Medical students preferred drugs for control of menstrual pain compared to others and most commonly used drug was mefenamic acid.

scholarly journals Prevalence of Low Back Pain and its Impact on Quality of Life among Taif University Students

2021 ◽  
Vol 6 (09) ◽  
pp. 545-553
Author(s):  
Ayman Abdelbaky Ahmad ◽  
Turki Abdulmuin Althobaiti ◽  
Mohammed Saleem Alsofiany ◽  
Moayad Abed Altowairqi ◽  
Omar Eid Aljuaid ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Quality Of Life ◽  
Low Back Pain ◽  
Back Pain ◽  
University Students ◽  
Short Form ◽  
Point Prevalence ◽  
Low Back ◽  
Annual Prevalence ◽  
Pain Medications

Background: Lower back pain (LBP) is associated with increased pain intensity, physical and psychological disability, and increased dependence on pain medications causing adverse effects on the day-to-day quality of life (QOL). The study aimed to assess the prevalence of LBP among Taif University students and its impact on quality of life. Methods: A pretested self-administered questionnaire was distributed randomly and electronically to all students who gave consent to participated. The questionnaire was be divided into three parts. The first part included demographic details; the second part assessed the prevalence of Low back pain and associated data that was recorded using the LBP section of Standardized Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire (SNMA); the third part consisted of the RAND 36-Item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36) for assessing the quality of life. Result: In our study majority of the participants were females (87.3%), and 55.3% belonged to the 20-25 years age group. The fixed orthodontic related history showed 59.8% had undergone the treatment for 1 to 3 years and 31.6% of the participants reported that they had removed the fixed braces for more than five years. Among these participants, 89.5% (n=34) reported that the fascia (space) closed between the upper frontal teeth after Frenectomy, and 65.8% (n=25) agreed that spaced between the two upper front teeth still closed after removing the retainer. Conclusion: The lifetime prevalence, annual prevalence, and point prevalence of LBP were found to be 57.9%, 73.1%, and 47.1%, respectively. The point prevalence was statistically higher among female students than male students (p=0.003). There were statistically significant differences seen in lifetime and point prevalence of LBP between different colleges. A linear regression model showed that the annual prevalence of LBP had a significant impact on the students' quality of life.

scholarly journals The Relationship between Physical Activity, Body Mass Index and Body Composition among Students at a Pre-University Centre in Malaysia

2020 ◽  
Vol 19 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
You HW ◽  
Tan PL ◽  
Mat Ludin AF
Keyword(s):  
Physical Activity ◽  
Body Mass Index ◽  
Body Composition ◽  
University Students ◽  
Muscle Mass ◽  
Body Mass ◽  
Fat Mass ◽  
The Body ◽  
Study Results ◽  
The Relationship

INTRODUCTION: Physical activity is an essential element in our daily life that leads to long-term health benefits. Physical activity refers to movement of the body that requires energy. Body mass index (BMI) indicates a ratio of body weight to squared height, which is a useful health indicator. On the contrary, body composition describes the body by measuring percentages of fat and muscle in human bodies. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This cross-sectional study aimed to determine the relationship between physical activities, BMI and body composition among pre-university students from one of the universities in Selangor, Malaysia. Stratified random sampling was employed to recruit 70 pre-university students into this study. RESULTS: From the study, 50% of the respondents are categorized as minimally active. In addition, there is significant difference between the physical activity levels of male and female respondents. The relationship between physical activity and BMI indicates a very weak negative correlation. Similarly, the correlation between physical activity and fat mass is a weak negative relationship. Meanwhile, there is a weak positive correlation between physical activity and muscle mass. CONCLUSION: Therefore, it can be concluded that when physical activity increases, BMI and body fat mass will decrease, while muscle mass will increase. Moreover, it was shown that there was a significant relationship between physical activity and body composition. 

scholarly journals Prescribing Patterns of Pain Medications in Unspecific Low Back Pain in Primary Care: A Retrospective Analysis

2021 ◽  
Vol 10 (7) ◽  
pp. 1366
Author(s):  
Stefania Di Gangi ◽  
Giuseppe Pichierri ◽  
Stefan Zechmann ◽  
Thomas Rosemann ◽  
Andreas Plate
Keyword(s):  
Primary Care ◽  
Low Back Pain ◽  
Back Pain ◽  
Multivariable Analysis ◽  
Patient Characteristics ◽  
Pain Medication ◽  
Prescribing Patterns ◽  
Low Back ◽  
Acute Low Back Pain ◽  
Pain Medications

Acute low back pain (LBP) is one of the most prevalent diseases worldwide. Since there is evidence of excessive prescriptions of analgesics, i.e., opioids, the aim of this study was to describe the use of pain medications in patients with LBP in the Swiss primary care setting. A retrospective, observational study was performed using medical prescriptions of 180 general practitioners (GP) during years 2009–2020. Patterns of pain medications (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol, and opioids) as well as co-medications were analyzed in patients with a LBP diagnosis. Univariable and multivariable regression analyses assessed GP and patient characteristics associated with the prescription of pain medication. Patients included were 10,331 (mean age 51.7 years, 51.2% female); 6449 (62.4%) received at least one pain medication and of these 86% receive NSAIDs and 22% opioids. GP characteristics (i.e., self-employment status) and patient characteristics (male gender and number of consultations) were associated with significantly higher odds of receiving any pain medication in multivariable analysis. 3719 patients (36%) received co-medications. Proton-pump-inhibitors and muscle relaxants were the most commonly used co-medications. In conclusion, two-thirds of LBP patients were treated with pain medications. Prescribing patterns were conservative, with little use of strong opioids and co-medications.

scholarly journals University Students' Self-Medication Practices and Pharmacists' Role: A Cross-Sectional Survey in Hail, Saudi Arabia

2021 ◽  
Vol 9 ◽  
Author(s):  
Farhan Alshammari ◽  
Ahmed Alobaida ◽  
Abdulhadi Alshammari ◽  
Atheer Alharbi ◽  
Adel Alrashidi ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Saudi Arabia ◽  
University Students ◽  
Health Care Providers ◽  
Univariate Analysis ◽  
The Self ◽  
Care Providers ◽  
Self Medication ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Abdominal Colic ◽  
Study Results

Background: Self-medication is an important issue for health authorities around the world. It is also a common practice among university students.Objective: This study aimed to assess the prevalence of and reasons for self-medication among university students.Methods: A descriptive, cross-sectional community based survey design was adopted for the current study. All the students enrolled in Hail University, Saudi Arabia were selected to include in the study. Data was collected from February to April 2020 using a validated questionnaire and were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics, Version 22.0. Using convenient sampling technique, the total sample size calculated was 370 participants. A descriptive analysis was performed. Chi-square test and binary logistic regression was used for analyzing the data where statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05.Results: A total of 373 participants completed the questionnaire. The response rate was 84%. The overall prevalence of self-medication among the students was 98.2%. Of the 373 participants, 40.8% were men, and 59.2% were women. Furthermore, 56% were in fields other than health sciences, 23.1% were in preparatory foundation courses, and 20.9% were from the health and medical sciences. The most frequent medical condition that led to self-medication was headaches (92.85%), followed by coughs (37.5%), colic (31.9%) and influenza (30.3%). On univariate analysis, it is revealed that for both abdominal colic [OR 0.54 (0.34–0.86), p = 0.01] and constipation [OR 0.57 (0.32–1.02), p 0.05], female gender was observed significantly with low prevalence than male. However, for influenza, the self-medication prevalence [OR 1.86 (1.19–2.91), p = 0.006] observed was significantly higher in female participants than male. A significant association (p = 0.011) between the self-medication factors and gender was shown in the current study results.Conclusion: An alarming prevalence of self-medication among the students was recorded. Health care providers can increase awareness of the issue by educating individuals about the harmful effects of irresponsible self-medication.

Pathophysiological mechanisms of hepatic immune reactivity in prolonged experimental exposure of the body to sodium fluoride

2019 ◽  
pp. 64-72
Author(s):  
А.С. Казицкая ◽  
Т.К. Ядыкина ◽  
М.С. Бугаева ◽  
А.Г. Жукова ◽  
Н.Н. Михайлова ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Sodium Fluoride ◽  
Histological Study ◽  
The Body ◽  
Male Rats ◽  
Free Access ◽  
Immune Reactivity ◽  
Organ Protection ◽  
Pathophysiological Mechanisms ◽  
Subchronic Exposure ◽  
Study Results

В условиях непрерывного воздействия неблагоприятных факторов окружающей и производственной среды на человека особую актуальность приобретает изучение механизмов, поддерживающих гомеостаз организма. Длительное поступление фторидов в организм приводит к формированию хронической фтористой интоксикации, патогенез которой вызывает многочисленные споры и дискуссии. До сих пор недостаточно внимания уделяется изучению висцеральной патологии, обусловленной нарушениями иммунного статуса в условиях воздействия на организм соединений фтора. Практически отсутствуют исследования по изучению иммунной реактивности, определяющей морфофункциональный характер ответной реакции печени на ранних стадиях развития фтористой интоксикации. Цель работы - изучение действий патофизиологических механизмов иммунной реактивности печени при субхроническом действии на организм соединений фтора. Методика. Опыты проведены на 210 лабораторных крысах-самцах массой 180-220 г., разделенных на 2 группы: контрольную (n=80) и группу животных с субхроническим действием фторида натрия (n=130). Экспериментальные животные в течение 12 нед имели свободный доступ к водному раствору фторида натрия (концентрация 10 мг/л, что составляет суточную дозу фтора 1,2 мг/кг массы тела). Для изучения иммунологических и биохимических показателей забирали кровь из хвостовой вены через 1, 3, 6, 9, 12 нед от начала эксперимента. Для оценки состояния гуморального звена иммунитета определяли уровень сывороточных иммуноглобулинов (IgA, IgG, IgM) иммуноферментным анализом с помощью наборов реактивов ЗАО «Вектор-Бест» (Новосибирск). Уровень сывороточных цитокинов: TNF-α, IL-1β, 2, 4, 6, 10 определяли на анализаторе Multiskan EX методом иммуноферментного анализа с использованием наборов «Вектор Бест» (Новосибирск). Подсчет общего количества лейкоцитов произведен классическим способом в камере Горяева, анализ лейкоцитарной формулы - в окрашенных мазках периферической крови. Метаболические изменения оценивали по активности ферментов в ткани печени: щелочной фосфатазы (ЩФ), аланин- и аспартатаминотрансфераз (АЛТ, АСТ), лактатдегидрогеназы (ЛДГ), гаммаглутамилтранспептидазы (γ-ГТ). Активность ферментов определяли унифицированными методами с помощью наборов реактивов ЗАО «Вектор-Бест» (Новосибирск) на фотометре PM-750 (Германия). Гистологические исследования печени осуществляли после декапитации крыс, проводимой под эфирным наркозом. Результаты. Показано, что субхроническое воздействие фторида натрия сопровождается формированием внутриклеточных и внутрисосудистых повреждений печени. Активация медиаторов воспаления и развитие иммунологических нарушений в динамике эксперимента способствуют формированию системной воспалительной реакции, которая приводит к появлению стойких морфологических нарушений в печени и изменению активности ферментов основных метаболических путей. Заключение. Полученные результаты могут быть использованы при разработке и проведении профилактических мероприятий в условиях воздействия на организм высоких концентраций фтора с последовательным применением детоксикационной, иммуномодуляторной и органопротекторной коррекции. Studying mechanisms, which maintain the body homeostasis, is particularly important in the conditions of continuous impact of adverse environmental and manufacturing factors. Long-term exposure to fluorides leads to chronic fluoric intoxication, the pathogenesis of which is a subject of multiple controversy and discussions. Not enough attention is still paid to elucidating the visceral pathology associated with fluorine-induced immune disorders. There are virtually no studies of immune reactions that define the morphofunctional nature of the liver response to early stages of fluoric intoxication. Aim. To study pathophysiological mechanisms of hepatic immune reactivity in subchronic exposure of the body to fluorine compounds. Methods. Experiments were performed on 210 male rats weighing 180-220 g. The animals were divided into two groups: 1) control (n=80) and 2) subchronic exposure to sodium fluoride (n=130). The rats had free access to a 10 mg/l aqueous solution of sodium fluoride (daily dose, 1.2 mg/kg body weight) for 12 weeks. Blood was withdrawn from the caudal vein at 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 weeks of the experiment for immunological and biochemical tests. Histological study of the liver was performed after decapitation of rats under ether anesthesia. Results. The subchronic exposure to sodium fluoride was associated with intracellular and intravascular damage of the liver. Activation of inflammatory mediators and development of immunological disorders during the experiment contributed to a systemic inflammatory reaction, which resulted in persistent morphological injuries of the liver and changes in enzyme activities in major metabolic pathways. Conclusion. The study results can be used for development and implementation of preventive measures against the effects of high fluorine concentrations, which would include a successive use of detoxification, immunomodulation and organ protection.

Correction of Posture Deviations in the Sagittal Plane Using the Pilates Method

2019 ◽  
pp. 3-13
Author(s):  
Alexandru Cîtea ◽  
George-Sebastian Iacob
Keyword(s):  
Low Back Pain ◽  
Back Pain ◽  
Postural Control ◽  
Human Body ◽  
Sagittal Plane ◽  
The Body ◽  
Lower Limbs ◽  
Low Back ◽  
Pilates Method ◽  
The Relationship

Posture is commonly perceived as the relationship between the segments of the human body upright. Certain parts of the body such as the cephalic extremity, neck, torso, upper and lower limbs are involved in the final posture of the body. Musculoskeletal instabilities and reduced postural control lead to the installation of nonstructural posture deviations in all 3 anatomical planes. When we talk about the sagittal plane, it was concluded that there are 4 main types of posture deviation: hyperlordotic posture, kyphotic posture, rectitude and "sway-back" posture.Pilates method has become in the last decade a much more popular formof exercise used in rehabilitation. The Pilates method is frequently prescribed to people with low back pain due to their orientation on the stabilizing muscles of the pelvis. Pilates exercise is thus theorized to help reactivate the muscles and, by doingso, increases lumbar support, reduces pain, and improves body alignment.

Critical analysis and unique management of Gridhrasi w.s.r. to Sciatica - A Case Report

2018 ◽  
Vol 3 (4) ◽  
Author(s):  
Dr. Rangarajan B. ◽  
Dr. Muralidhara .
Keyword(s):  
Low Back Pain ◽  
Back Pain ◽  
Case Report ◽  
Total Population ◽  
The Body ◽  
Walking Distance ◽  
Common Symptom ◽  
Low Back ◽  
Short Term ◽  
Lower Back

Gridhrasi (Sciatica) is a disorder in which low back pain is found, that spreads through the hip, to the back of the thigh and down the inside of the leg. Mechanical low back pain (LBP) remains the second most common symptom related reason for seeing a physician. 85% of total population will experience an episode of mechanical LBP at some point during their lifetime. Fortunately, the LBP resolves for the vast majority within 2-4 weeks. There are many causes for low back pain, however true sciatica is a symptom of inflammation or compression of the sciatica nerve. The sciatica nerve carries impulses between nerve roots in the lower back and the muscles and nerve of the buttocks, thighs and lower legs. Compression of a nerve root often occurs as a result of damage to one of the discs between the vertebrae. In some cases, sciatic pain radiate from other nerves in the body. This is called referred pain. Pain associated with sciatica often is severe, sharp and shooting. It may be accompanied by other symptom, such as numbness, tingling, weakness and sensitivity to touch. There is only conservative treatment giving short term relief in pain or surgical intervention with side effect. But these are not successful and therefore those who are suffering from this are always in search of result oriented remedy. Walking distance and SLR test were taken for assessment parameter, VAS score was adopted for pain. Before treatment patient was not able to walk even 4 to 5 steps due to severe pain, was brought on stretcher and his SLR was 30° of right side. After 22 days of treatment he was able to walk up to 500 meters without any difficulty, SLR was changed to 60° and patient had got 80 % relief in pain. This case report showed that Ayurvedic protocol is potent and safe in the treatment of Gridhrasi.

scholarly journals Psychotropic and pain medication use in individuals with traumatic brain injury—a Swedish total population cohort study of 240 000 persons

2021 ◽  
Vol 92 (5) ◽  
pp. 519-527
Author(s):  
Yasmina Molero ◽  
David James Sharp ◽  
Brian Matthew D'Onofrio ◽  
Henrik Larsson ◽  
Seena Fazel
Keyword(s):  
Traumatic Brain Injury ◽  
Brain Injury ◽  
Total Population ◽  
Medication Use ◽  
Population Based ◽  
Pain Medication ◽  
Short Term ◽  
Pain Medications ◽  
Before And After

ObjectiveTo examine psychotropic and pain medication use in a population-based cohort of individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI), and compare them with controls from similar backgrounds.MethodsWe assessed Swedish nationwide registers to include all individuals diagnosed with incident TBI between 2006 and 2012 in hospitals or specialist outpatient care. Full siblings never diagnosed with TBI acted as controls. We examined dispensed prescriptions for psychotropic and pain medications for the 12 months before and after the TBI.ResultsWe identified 239 425 individuals with incident TBI, and 199 658 unaffected sibling controls. In the TBI cohort, 36.6% had collected at least one prescription for a psychotropic or pain medication in the 12 months before the TBI. In the 12 months after, medication use increased to 45.0%, an absolute rate increase of 8.4% (p<0.001). The largest post-TBI increases were found for opioids (from 16.3% to 21.6%, p<0.001), and non-opioid pain medications (from 20.3% to 26.6%, p<0.001). The majority of prescriptions were short-term; 20.6% of those prescribed opioids and 37.3% of those with benzodiazepines collected prescriptions for more than 6 months. Increased odds of any psychotropic or pain medication were associated with individuals before (OR: 1.62, 95% CI: 1.59 to 1.65), and after the TBI (OR: 2.30, 95% CI: 2.26 to 2.34) as compared with sibling controls, and ORs were consistently increased for all medication classes.ConclusionHigh rates of psychotropic and pain medications after a TBI suggest that medical follow-up should be routine and review medication use.

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