GEODYNAMICS

The basic goal of this study (as the first step) is to collect the appropriate set of the fundamental astronomic-geodetics parameters for their further use to obtain the components of the density distributions for the terrestrial and outer planets of the Solar system (in the time interval of more than 10 years). The initial data were adopted from several steps of the general way of the exploration of the Solar system by iterations through different spacecraft. The mechanical and geometrical parameters of the planets allow finding the solution of the inverse gravitational problem (as the second stage) in the case of the continued Gaussian density distribution for the Moon, terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars) and outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune). This law of Gaussian density distribution or normal density was chosen as a partial solution of the Adams-Williamson equation and the best approximation of the piecewise radial profile of the Earth, including the PREM model based on independent seismic velocities. Such conclusion already obtained for the Earth’s was used as hypothetic in view of the approximation problem for other planets of the Solar system where we believing to get the density from the inverse gravitational problem in the case of the Gaussian density distribution for other planets because seismic information, in that case, is almost absent. Therefore, if we can find a stable solution for the inverse gravitational problem and corresponding continue Gaussian density distribution approximated with good quality of planet’s density distribution we come in this way to a stable determination of the gravitational potential energy of the terrestrial and giant planets. Moreover to the planet’s normal low, the gravitational potential energy, Dirichlet’s integral, and other planets’ parameters were derived. It should be noted that this study is considered time-independent to avoid possible time changes in the gravitational fields of the planets.

NASA’s Lucy mission launches to Jupiter’s Trojan asteroids

NASA has launched a $1bn mission to study Jupiter’s Trojan asteroids – two large clusters of rocks that are believed to be remnants of primordial material that formed the solar system’s outer planets.

Size Evolution of Close-in Super-Earths through Giant Impacts and Photoevaporation

The Kepler transit survey with follow-up spectroscopic observations has discovered numerous super-Earth sized planets and revealed intriguing features of their sizes, orbital periods, and their relations between adjacent planets. For the first time, we investigate the size evolution of planets via both giant impacts and photoevaporation to compare with these observed features. We calculate the size of a protoplanet, which is the sum of its core and envelope sizes, by analytical models. N-body simulations are performed to evolve planet sizes during the giant impact phase with envelope stripping via impact shocks. We consider the initial radial profile of the core mass and the initial envelope mass fractions as parameters. Inner planets can lose their whole envelopes via giant impacts, while outer planets can keep their initial envelopes, because they do not experience giant impacts. Photoevaporation is simulated to evolve planet sizes afterward. Our results suggest that the period-radius distribution of the observed planets would be reproduced if we perform simulations in which the initial radial profile of the core mass follows a wide range of power-law distributions and the initial envelope mass fractions are ∼0.1. Moreover, our model shows that the adjacent planetary pairs have similar sizes and regular spacings, with slight differences from detailed observational results such as the radius gap.

Strong scatterings of cold jupiters and their influence on inner low-mass planet systems: theory and simulations

Recent observations have indicated a strong connection between compact (a ≲ 0.5 au) super-Earth and mini-Neptune systems and their outer (a ≳ a few au) giant planet companions. We study the dynamical evolution of such inner systems subject to the gravitational effect of an unstable system of outer giant planets, focussing on systems whose end configurations feature only a single remaining outer giant. In contrast to similar studies which used on N-body simulations with specific (and limited) parameters or scenarios, we implement a novel hybrid algorithm which combines N-body simulations with secular dynamics with aims of obtaining analytical understanding and scaling relations. We find that the dynamical evolution of the inner planet system depends crucially on Nej, the number of mutual close encounters between the outer planets prior to eventual ejection/merger. When Nej is small, the eventual evolution of the inner planets can be well described by secular dynamics. For larger values of Nej, the inner planets gain orbital inclination and eccentricity in a stochastic fashion analogous to Brownian motion. We develop a theoretical model, and compute scaling laws for the final orbital parameters of the inner system. We show that our model can account for the observed eccentric super-Earths/mini-Neptunes with inclined cold Jupiter companions, such as HAT-P-11, Gliese 777 and π Men.

Gravity Field (Low Frequency) of Planet Earth Described by Theory of New Axioms and Laws

The theory of new axioms and laws is published by the same author. It describes nonparametric and nonlinear processes and contains 2 new axioms and 8 new laws. Unlike Classical field theory, it describes longitudinal or transverse non-uniform motions which are accelerating or decelerating. According to the Axiom 1 every unevenly rotation of one vector forms open vortex which can be transverse or longitudinal and accelerating or decelerating. From the planetary model of Rutherford it is known that there is analogy between the electrons and an planets including the planet Earth. By analogy - the electrons and the internal planets are similar Gravitational bodies. According the Law 1 the model of the electron or the Earth represents a decelerating transverse vortex rolled into a plane (2D) and generating in its center accelerating longitudinal Gravity Funnel in (3D), perpendicular to the same plane. Inside- the primary accelerating longitudinal Gravity vectors are with decreasing dimensions and forms the decelerating Magnetic Field as a Back wave passing through the center of Earth. Outside- because of resistance of environment in periphery, is formed Back wave or decelerating Gravity vortex that passes outside the body of Earth. According Axiom 2 the reason for the creation of the electron is the generation by the corresponding proton. By analogythe reason for the creation of internal planets, including the planet Earth is in the generation of a specific vortex inside the corresponding for Earth resonator in the volume of the Sun. It is Low Frequency vortex which is formed in the third cylindrical resonator that corresponds to Earth. According Law 2 the proton or the resonator inside Sun is generated by a decelerating longitudinal vortex with direction from outside to inside which creates an accelerating transverse vortex from inside to outside in the perpendicular plane. As it is strongly accelerated this vortex from inside to outside it shoots itself into space in direction to the Earth. Due to the friction it decelerates and according to the previous Law 1 it winds into as a decelerating transverse vortex generating the body of Earth. According Law 5 decelerating vortex emits decelerating cross vortices from itself to outside. This decelerating vortices in periphery of the Earth emit energy and warm the center of the Earth. That is why the periphery of Earth is cool ,but the center of Earth is hot . According Law 6 the accelerating cross vortex sucks accelerating cross vortices to itself . This accelerating cross vortex at center of the Sun sucks energy and warm from center and emits them to periphery of Sun. That is why the center of Sun is cool but the periphery is extremely accelerated and hot. The described generating mechanism only applies to the inner planets. For the outer planets, the generation algorithm is orthogonal and will be described further

Features of the Dynamical Evolution of a Massive Disk of Trans-Neptunian Objects

Abstract— The dynamical features of a massive disk of distant trans-Neptunian objects are considered in the model of the formation of small bodies in the Hill region of a giant gas-dust clump that arose as a result of gravitational instability and fragmentation of the protoplanetary disk. The dynamical evolution of the orbits of small bodies under the action of gravitational perturbations from the outer planets and self-gravity of the disk has been studied for a time interval of the order of a billion years. It is shown that the secular effects of the gravitational influence of a massive disk of small bodies lead to an increase in the eccentricities of the orbits of individual objects. The result of this dynamical behavior is the creation of a flux of small bodies coming close to the orbit of Neptune. The change in the number of objects surviving in the observable region of distant trans-Neptunian objects (the region of orbits with perihelion distances of 40 < q < 80 AU and semimajor axes 150 < a < 1000 AU), over time depends on the initial mass of the disk. For disks with masses exceeding several Earth masses, there is a tendency to a decrease in the number of distant trans-Neptunian objects surviving in the observable region after evolution for a time interval of the order of the age of the Solar System, with an increase in the initial mass. On the other hand, for most objects, orbital eccentricities decrease under the influence of the self-gravity of the disk. Therefore, the main part of the disk is preserved in the region of heliocentric distances exceeding 100 AU.

Turbulence in the Magnetospheres of the Outer Planets

The magnetospheres of the outer planets exhibit turbulent phenomena in an environment which is qualitatively different compared to the solar wind or the interstellar medium. The key differences are the finite sizes of the magnetospheres limited by their physical boundaries, the presence of a strong planetary background magnetic field and spatially very inhomogeneous plasma properties within the magnetospheres. Typical turbulent fluctuations possess amplitudes much smaller than the background field and are characterized by Alfvén times, which can be smaller than the non-linear interaction time scales. The magnetospheres of the outer planets are thus interesting laboratories of plasma turbulence. In Jupiter's and Saturn's magnetospheres, turbulence is well-established thanks to the in-situ measurements by several spacecraft, in particular the Galileo and Cassini orbiter. In contrast, the fluctuations in Uranus' and Neptune's magnetospheres are poorly understood due to the lack of sufficient data. Turbulence in the outer planets' magnetospheres have important effects on the systems as a whole. The dissipation of the turbulent fluctuations through wave-particle interaction is a significant heat source, which can explain the large magnetospheric plasma temperatures. Similarly, turbulent wave fluctuations strongly contribute to the acceleration of particles responsible for the planet's auroras.

Rules of formation of H–C–N–O compounds at high pressure and the fates of planetary ices

The solar system’s outer planets, and many of their moons, are dominated by matter from the H–C–N–O chemical space, based on solar system abundances of hydrogen and the planetary ices H2O, CH4, and NH3. In the planetary interiors, these ices will experience extreme pressure conditions, around 5 Mbar at the Neptune mantle–core boundary, and it is expected that they undergo phase transitions, decompose, and form entirely new compounds. While temperature will dictate the formation of compounds, ground-state density functional theory allows us to probe the chemical effects resulting from pressure alone. These structural developments in turn determine the planets’ interior structures, thermal evolution, and magnetic field generation, among others. Despite its importance, the H–C–N–O system has not been surveyed systematically to explore which compounds emerge at high-pressure conditions, and what governs their stability. Here, we report on and analyze an unbiased crystal structure search among H–C–N–O compounds between 1 and 5 Mbar. We demonstrate that simple chemical rules drive stability in this composition space, which explains why the simplest possible quaternary mixture HCNO—isoelectronic to diamond—emerges as a stable compound and discuss dominant decomposition products of planetary ice mixtures.

Curved Space: Theory of Everything

Matter and energy are both made from curved space, the flow of space creates gravitation, and the increase of space causes the expansion of the universe. Matter curves in two different directions of one dimension creates two types of electric charges: positive and negative. Matter curves in three different dimensions creates three values or charges of quark's color: red, green, and blue. The equivalent equation of space: S=Ec²=mc⁴ . The main asteroid belt is at the gravitation limit distance of the Sun. When the Sun moves forward in the Milky Way, the inner planets are affected by the gravitation and moves directly with it. The space which released by the Sun flows backwards on its path and guiding the outer planets to follow it. The gravitation of hollow sphere space: S=(4/3)π((r+a)³-r³) .

Transport Characteristics of the Electrification and Lightening of the Gas Mixture Representing the Atmospheres of the Solar System Planets

Electrification represents a fundamental process in planetary atmospheres, widespread in the Solar System. The atmospheres of the terrestrial planets (Venus, Earth, and Mars) range from thin to thick are rich in heavier gases and gaseous compounds, such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, argon, sodium, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide. The Jovian planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) have thick atmospheres mainly composed of hydrogen and helium involving. The electrical discharge processes occur in the planetary atmospheres leading to potential hazards due to arcing on landers and rovers. Lightning does not only affect the atmospheric chemical composition but also has been involved in the origin of life in the terrestrial atmosphere. This paper is dealing with the transport parameters and the breakdown voltage curves of the gas compositions representing atmospheres of the planets of the Solar System. Ionization coefficients, electron energy distribution functions, and the mean energy of the atmospheric gas mixtures have been calculated by BOLSIG+. Transport parameters of the carbon dioxide rich atmospheric compositions are similar but differ from those of the Earth’s atmosphere. Small differences between parameters of the Solar System's outer planets can be explained by a small abundance of their constituent gases as compared to the abundance of hydrogen. Based on the fit of the reduced effective ionization coefficient, the breakdown voltage curves for atmospheric mixtures have been plotted. It was found that the breakdown voltage curves corresponding to the atmospheres of Solar System planets follow the standard scaling law. Results of calculations satisfactorily agree with the available data from the literature. The minimal and the maximal value of the voltage required to trigger electric breakdown is obtained for the Martian and Jupiter atmospheres, respectively.