scholarly journals Assessment of salt intake: how accurate is it?

2013 ◽  
Vol 72 (3) ◽  
pp. 342-347 ◽  
Author(s):  
Catherine M. Champagne ◽  
Katherine C. Cash
Keyword(s):  
Cardiovascular Health ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Food Products ◽  
Sodium Content ◽  
Dietary Sodium ◽  
Cvd Risk ◽  
Average Intake ◽  
Health Related ◽  
Sodium Consumption

The aims of this review paper are to provide an overview of the association of sodium intake with cardiovascular health, to identify sodium in our global food supply and to describe problems associated with assessment of dietary sodium intake. Excess sodium intake may contribute to the development of hypertension in some individuals, consequently increasing CVD risk. The average intake of sodium in populations around the world far exceeds the actual body's needs. Processed and restaurant foods contribute the most dietary sodium for Americans and other populations worldwide. There is a worldwide focus on reducing sodium content of food products in an effort to reduce health related issues associated with excessive salt and sodium intake in individuals. In several countries, regulations have been introduced to lower the sodium content of foods. Manufacturers are complying with these regulations by formulating new products to meet these standards. However, the variability in food sodium content poses challenges to researchers to accurately assess dietary sodium intakes of individuals. There are differences in sodium content of foods in databases compared with nutritional information provided by manufacturers for the same food products. Variations also exist in restaurant foods, where values differ from those available on restaurant websites. Sodium may be either underestimated or overestimated; it is not always on target. Awareness of the variability among food products is crucial but capturing sodium content of every food in the market is not feasible. Whenever possible, updating databases is critical. In conclusion, it is not feasible to capture the sodium content of every food in the marketplace but being aware of these differences is essential to assessing actual sodium consumption. Since biological determinations are burdensome and impractical, it is imperative for researchers and other health professionals to participate in the development and implementation of tools to accurately assess sodium intake in individuals.

scholarly journals Sources of Dietary Sodium in Food and Beverages Consumed by Spanish Schoolchildren between 7 and 11 Years Old by the Degree of Processing and the Nutritional Profile

Nutrients ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 10 (12) ◽  
pp. 1880 ◽  
Author(s):  
Esther Cuadrado-Soto ◽  
África Peral-Suarez ◽  
Aránzazu Aparicio ◽  
Jose Perea ◽  
Rosa Ortega ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Salt Intake ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Meat Products ◽  
Sodium Content ◽  
Dietary Sodium ◽  
Negative Effects ◽  
Nutritional Profile ◽  
Food And Beverages ◽  
Dietary Record ◽  
Level Of Processing

Excessive salt intake has negative effects on health and persists as a dietary problem in Spanish children. However, the analysis of dietary sodium sources has not been extensively studied. A group of 321 children between 7 and 11 years old from five Spanish regional communities was studied. A three-day dietary record was used to determine the contribution of food and beverages to dietary sodium intake. The food consumed was classified based on the level of processing (NOVA classification) and the nutritional profile. Boys consumed more dietary sodium and sodium from ultra-processed food (UPF) than girls (p < 0.05). The main sources of dietary sodium from discretionary food were meat and meat products (25.1%), some ready-to-eat and pre-cooked dishes (7.4%) and sugars and sweets (6.3%). More than 4/5 of the total dietary sodium consumed came from processed foods (PF) and UPF. Ready-to-eat and pre-cooked dishes (14.4%), meat and meat products (10.6%), and cereals (10.2%) were the most relevant UPF. These results demonstrate that a key point for Spanish children is a reduction in the sodium content in PF and UPF, whether these foods are for basic or discretionary consumption. Furthermore, a decrease in the frequency and the quantity of discretionary food consumption should be encouraged.

Abstract MP67: The Association Between Habitual Dietary Sodium and Soluble Cell Adhesion Molecules Among Middle-Aged Male Twins

Circulation ◽  
2013 ◽  
Vol 127 (suppl_12) ◽  
Author(s):  
Silvia C Eufinger ◽  
Jack Goldberg ◽  
Thomas R Ziegler ◽  
William M McClellan ◽  
Amita K Manatunga ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Risk Factors ◽  
Cell Adhesion ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Statistical Significance ◽  
Dietary Sodium ◽  
Cvd Risk Factors ◽  
Cvd Risk ◽  
Individual Level ◽  
Soluble Cell ◽  
Sodium Consumption

Introduction: Habitual dietary sodium intake is associated with coronary flow reserve, a measure of microvascular function. We investigated the role of habitual dietary sodium in the expression of soluble cell adhesion molecules; these molecules are markers of endothelial dysfunction that are thought to contribute to the development of atherosclerosis. Hypothesis: Habitual dietary sodium is directly associated with soluble vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (sVCAM-1) and soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (sICAM-1) concentration. Methods: We recruited 475 predominantly healthy middle-aged male twins, including 214 monozygotic and dizygotic twin pairs and 47 unpaired twins, from the Vietnam Era Twin Registry. The twins had no previous history of coronary heart disease. Food intake was assessed using the Willett food-frequency questionnaire. We estimated habitual daily sodium consumption over the previous year from reported food intake. We measured sVCAM-1 and sICAM-1 concentration in blood using commercially available ELISA kits. We also obtained information on demographic characteristics and traditional CVD risk factors, including blood pressure. Mixed-effect regression analysis was used to examine individual-level effects and robust regression analysis was used to examine within-pair differences. Results: The twins’ mean age was 53.4 years (SD = 3.1), and 96% (455 out of 475) were white. An increase in dietary sodium of 1,000 mg/d was associated with a 12.2% higher sVCAM-1 concentration (95% CI: 3.1, 21.2; P = 0.009) after adjustment for total energy intake, various nutritional factors, demographic characteristics, and traditional CVD risk factors. For sICAM-1, the adjusted individual-level effect was only 3.1% and did not achieve statistical significance ( P = 0.39). Across quintiles of sodium consumption, sVCAM-1 concentration was directly associated with dietary sodium ( P for trend = 0.002) with the top quintile (sodium >1,505 mg/d) having a 22.9% higher sVCAM-1 concentration than the bottom quintile (sodium <742 mg/d) after controlling for potential confounders. This association persisted within twin pairs ( P = 0.03), yet differed by zygosity ( P interaction = 0.01). Among dizygotic pairs, a 1,000 mg/d within-pair difference in dietary sodium was associated with a 17.3% higher sVCAM-1 concentration in the twin with higher dietary sodium than in the co-twin with lower dietary sodium ( P = 0.005) after adjustment for potential confounders. Among monozygotic pairs, however, the within-pair difference was only 5.0% per 1,000 mg/d of sodium intake and did not reach statistical significance ( P = 0.25). Conclusions: Habitual dietary sodium is directly associated with sVCAM-1 concentration, a marker of abnormal endothelial function, independent of traditional CVD risk factors. However, shared genetic factors may mediate this association.

Blood Pressure and Intra-Erythrocyte Sodium during Normal and High Salt Intake in Middle-Aged Men: Relationship to Family History of Hypertension, and Neurogenic and Hormonal Variables

1984 ◽  
Vol 66 (4) ◽  
pp. 427-433 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ottar Gudmundsson ◽  
Hans Herlitz ◽  
Olof Jonsson ◽  
Thomas Hedner ◽  
Ove Andersson ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Family History ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Positive Family History ◽  
Sodium Content ◽  
High Salt Intake ◽  
History Of ◽  
Family History Of Hypertension ◽  
Erythrocyte Sodium

1. During 4 weeks 37 normotensive 50-year-old men identified by screening in a random population sample were given 12 g of NaCl daily, in addition to their usual dietary sodium intake. Blood pressure, heart rate, weight, urinary excretion of sodium, potassium and catecholamines, plasma aldosterone and noradrenaline and intra-erythrocyte sodium content were determined on normal and increased salt intake. The subjects were divided into those with a positive family history of hypertension (n = 11) and those without such a history (n = 26). 2. Systolic blood pressure and weight increased significantly irrespective of a positive family history of hypertension. 3. On normal salt intake intra-erythrocyte sodium content was significantly higher in those with a positive family history of hypertension. During high salt intake intra-erythrocyte sodium content decreased significantly in that group and the difference between the hereditary subgroups was no longer significant. 4. In the whole group urinary excretion of noradrenaline, adrenaline and dopamine increased whereas plasma aldosterone decreased during the increased salt intake. 5. Thus, in contrast to some earlier studies performed in young subjects, our results indicate that moderately increased sodium intake acts as a pressor agent in normotensive middle-aged men whether there was a positive family history of hypertension or not. We confirm that men with positive family history of hypertension have an increased intra-erythrocyte sodium content, and that an increase in salt intake seems to increase overall sympathetic activity.

scholarly journals Change in Salt Intake Affects Blood Pressure of Chimpanzees

Circulation ◽  
2007 ◽  
Vol 116 (14) ◽  
pp. 1563-1568 ◽  
Author(s):  
Paul Elliott ◽  
Lesley L. Walker ◽  
Mark P. Little ◽  
John R. Blair-West ◽  
Robert E. Shade ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Confidence Interval ◽  
Human Population ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Homo Sapiens ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Systolic Pressure ◽  
Sodium Content ◽  
Standard Diet ◽  
Arterial Blood

Background— Addition of up to 15.0 g/d salt to the diet of chimpanzees caused large rises in blood pressure, which reversed when the added salt was removed. Effects of more modest alterations to sodium intakes in chimpanzees, akin to current efforts to lower sodium intakes in the human population, are unknown. Methods and Results— Sodium intakes were altered among 17 chimpanzees in Franceville, Gabon, and 110 chimpanzees in Bastrop, Tex. In Gabon, chimpanzees had a biscuit diet of constant nutrient composition except that the sodium content was changed episodically over 3 years from 75 to 35 to 120 mmol/d. In Bastrop, animals were divided into 2 groups; 1 group continued on the standard diet of 250 mmol/d sodium for 2 years, and sodium intake was halved for the other group. Lower sodium intake was associated with lower systolic, diastolic, and mean arterial blood pressures in Gabon (2-tailed P <0.001, unadjusted and adjusted for age, sex, and baseline weight) and Bastrop ( P <0.01, unadjusted; P =0.08 to 0.10, adjusted), with no threshold down to 35 mmol/d sodium. For systolic pressure, estimates were −12.7 mm Hg (95% confidence interval, −16.9 to −8.5, adjusted) per 100 mmol/d lower sodium in Gabon and −10.9 mm Hg (95% confidence interval, −18.9 to −2.9, unadjusted) and −5.7 mm Hg (95% confidence interval, −12.2 to 0.7, adjusted) for sodium intake lower by 122 mmol/d in Bastrop. Baseline systolic pressures higher by 10 mm Hg were associated with larger falls in systolic pressure by 4.3/2.9 mm Hg in Gabon/Bastrop per 100 mmol/d lower sodium. Conclusions— These findings from an essentially single-variable experiment in the species closest to Homo sapiens with high intakes of calcium and potassium support intensified public health efforts to lower sodium intake in the human population.

Sodium Intake of Infants in the United States

PEDIATRICS ◽  
1981 ◽  
Vol 68 (3) ◽  
pp. 444-445
Author(s):  
Lewis A. Barness ◽  
Peter R. Dallman ◽  
Homer Anderson ◽  
Platon Jack Collipp ◽  
Buford L. Nichols ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Animal Studies ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Monosodium Glutamate ◽  
Later Life ◽  
The United States ◽  
Sodium Content ◽  
Etiologic Factor ◽  
National Academy Of Sciences ◽  
Infant Foods

Since 1963 there has been public concern that prepared infant foods might be providing more sodium than was needed for normal infants.1 The suggestion that salt intake is an etiologic factor in the development of hypertension in adults rests largely on epidemiologic evidence and animal studies. Additional factors of genetic and nutritional origin play a role in its pathogenesis.2 The hypothesis that the sodium content of infant foods contributes toward hypertension in later life has not been confirmed in two areas. (1) Infant foods, even with salt added, have not been shown to contribute as much sodium to the diet as whole milk or table foods. (2) Studies of infants fed diets that were either high or low in sodium (9.25 mEq/100 kcal vs 1.93 mEq/100 kcal) from ages 3 to 8 months showed no correlation between salt intake during infancy and blood pressure at 1 and 8 years of age.3 The Subcommittee on Safety and Suitability of Monosodium Glutamate and Other Substances in Baby Foods, Food Protection Committee, Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Sciences,4 observed in 1970 that, between the fourth and 12th months of life, the introduction of supplemented foods and cow's milk increased the intake of sodium to approximately 5 mEq/100 kcal/day. Some of this sodium came from prepared infant foods. It was recommended that the manufacturers of infant foods add no more than 0.25% salt to foods requiring this in their formulation. This recommendation was implemented. The Committee on Nutrition observed in 1974 that this reduction in added salt had decreased the sodium intake only of infants less than 8 months old.2

scholarly journals Repeated Exposure to Low-Sodium Cereal Affects Acceptance but Does not Shift Taste Preferences or Detection Thresholds of Children in a Randomized Clinical Trial

2019 ◽  
Vol 149 (5) ◽  
pp. 870-876 ◽  
Author(s):  
Nuala Bobowski ◽  
Julie A Mennella
Keyword(s):  
Repeated Measures ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Energy Content ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Dietary Sodium ◽  
Taste Preferences ◽  
Detection Thresholds ◽  
Salt Taste ◽  
Low Sodium ◽  
Secondary Outcomes

ABSTRACT Background Although salt taste preference is malleable in adults, no research to date has focused on children, whose dietary sodium intake exceeds recommended intake and whose salt taste preferences are elevated. Objective This proof-of-principle trial determined whether 8-wk exposure to low-sodium cereal (LSC) increased children's acceptance of its taste and changed their salty and sweet taste preferences. Methods Children (n = 39; ages 6–14 y; 67% female) were randomly assigned to ingest LSC or regular-sodium cereal (RSC) 4 times/wk for 8 wk. The cereals, similar in sugar (3 g/cup compared with 2 g/cup) and energy content (100 kcal/cup) yet different in sodium content (200 mg sodium/cup compared with 64 mg sodium/cup), were chosen based on taste evaluation by a panel of children. Mothers completed daily logs on children's cereal intake. At baseline and after the exposure period, taste tests determined which cereal children preferred and measured children's most preferred amount of salt (primary outcomes), and most preferred amount of sucrose and salt taste detection thresholds (secondary outcomes). Repeated measures ANOVAs were conducted on primary and secondary outcomes, and generalized estimating equations were conducted on amount of cereal ingested at home over time. Results Both treatment groups accepted and ate the assigned cereal throughout the 8-wk exposure. There were no group × time interactions in salt detection thresholds (P = 0.32) or amount of salt (P = 0.30) and sucrose (P = 0.77) most preferred, which were positively correlated (P = 0.001). At baseline and after the exposure, the majority in both groups preferred the taste of the RSC relative to LSC (P > 0.40). Conclusions Children showed no change in salt preference but readily ate the LSC for 8 consecutive weeks. Findings highlight the potential for reducing children's dietary salt intake by incorporating low-sodium foods in the home environment without more preferred higher-salt versions of these foods. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02909764.

scholarly journals Sodium Intake and Hypertension

Nutrients ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 11 (9) ◽  
pp. 1970 ◽  
Author(s):  
Grillo ◽  
Salvi ◽  
Coruzzi ◽  
Salvi ◽  
Parati
Keyword(s):  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Peripheral Resistance ◽  
Dietary Sodium ◽  
Dietary Salt ◽  
High Sodium ◽  
Close Relationship ◽  
And Function ◽  
Modest Reduction

The close relationship between hypertension and dietary sodium intake is widely recognized and supported by several studies. A reduction in dietary sodium not only decreases the blood pressure and the incidence of hypertension, but is also associated with a reduction in morbidity and mortality from cardiovascular diseases. Prolonged modest reduction in salt intake induces a relevant fall in blood pressure in both hypertensive and normotensive individuals, irrespective of sex and ethnic group, with larger falls in systolic blood pressure for larger reductions in dietary salt. The high sodium intake and the increase in blood pressure levels are related to water retention, increase in systemic peripheral resistance, alterations in the endothelial function, changes in the structure and function of large elastic arteries, modification in sympathetic activity, and in the autonomic neuronal modulation of the cardiovascular system. In this review, we have focused on the effects of sodium intake on vascular hemodynamics and their implication in the pathogenesis of hypertension.

scholarly journals Monitoring Sodium Content in Processed Foods in Argentina 2017–2018: Compliance with National Legislation and Regional Targets

Nutrients ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 11 (7) ◽  
pp. 1474
Author(s):  
Lorena Allemandi ◽  
Maria Victoria Tiscornia ◽  
Leila Guarnieri ◽  
Luciana Castronuovo ◽  
Enrique Martins
Keyword(s):  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Food Products ◽  
Sodium Content ◽  
Processed Foods ◽  
Food Groups ◽  
Sodium Reduction ◽  
Fish Products ◽  
Health Objectives ◽  
High Median ◽  
Selection Of

Sodium intake in Argentina has been estimated to be at least double the dose of 2000 mg/day recommended by WHO, mostly coming from processed foods. Argentina is one of the few countries in the world that have regulated sodium content in certain food products. This study presents an assessment of sodium content in a selection of food groups and categories as reported in the nutrient information panels. We surveyed 3674 food products, and the sodium content of 864 and 1375 of them was compared to the maximum levels according to the Argentinean law and the regional targets, respectively. All food categories presented high variability of sodium content. Over 90% of the products included in the national sodium reduction law were found to be compliant. Food groups with high median sodium, such as condiments, sauces and spreads, and fish and fish products, are not included in the national law. In turn, comparisons with the lower regional targets indicated that almost 50% of the products analyzed had sodium contents above the recommended values. This evidence suggests that enhancing sodium reduction in processed foods may be a necessity for public health objectives and it is also technically feasible in Argentina.

Formulating and evaluating quantitative models of control of sodium stores

1985 ◽  
Vol 249 (5) ◽  
pp. R624-R633 ◽  
Author(s):  
F. H. Daniels ◽  
S. Cortell ◽  
E. F. Leonard
Keyword(s):  
Feedback Control ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Urinary Sodium Excretion ◽  
Sodium Content ◽  
The Body ◽  
Dietary Sodium ◽  
Quantitative Models ◽  
Using Data ◽  
Available Information ◽  
Feedback Control Theory

Numerous factors that influence sodium handling have been identified, and many have been studied in minute detail; however, relatively little information is available regarding either the steady-state relationship between dietary sodium intake and sodium stores or the transient response of intact animals to challenges to sodium homeostasis. In this paper the principles of elementary feedback control theory have been used both to obtain and analyze quantitative models of the feedback control of sodium stores. It has been assumed that the sodium content of the body determines the rate of urinary sodium excretion, and a mass balance has been used to obtain differential equations that describe the dynamics of sodium stores. Both first- and second-order models are considered, and their predictions for both steady states and transients are compared critically with observations from the literature, using data from human studies whenever possible. The results indicate that a relatively simple proportional feedback controller describes most available data well; however, gaps in the available information are identified, and opportunities for future experimental investigation are described.

scholarly journals Effects of AT1A receptor deletion on blood pressure and sodium excretion during altered dietary salt intake

2002 ◽  
Vol 283 (3) ◽  
pp. F447-F453 ◽  
Author(s):  
Amy J. Mangrum ◽  
R. Ariel Gomez ◽  
Victoria F. Norwood
Keyword(s):  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Salt Intake ◽  
Sodium Intake ◽  
Dietary Sodium ◽  
Sodium Balance ◽  
Wild Type ◽  
Compensatory Mechanisms ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
Blood Pressures ◽  
Pressure Natriuresis

The present study was performed to investigate the role of type 1A ANG II (AT1A) receptors in regulating sodium balance and blood pressure maintenance during chronic dietary sodium variations in AT1A receptor-deficient (−/−) mice. Groups of AT1A (−/−) and wild-type mice were placed on a low (LS)-, normal (NS)-, or high-salt (HS) diet for 3 wk. AT1A(−/−) mice on an LS diet had high urinary volume and low blood pressure despite increased renin and aldosterone levels. On an HS diet, (−/−) mice demonstrated significant diuresis, yet blood pressure increased to levels greater than control littermates. There was no effect of dietary sodium intake on systolic blood pressures in wild-type animals. The pressure-natriuresis relationship in AT1A (−/−) mice demonstrated a shift to the left and a decreased slope compared with wild-type littermates. These studies demonstrate that mice lacking the AT1A receptor have blood pressures sensitive to changes in dietary sodium, marked alterations of the pressure-natriuresis relationship, and compensatory mechanisms capable of maintaining normal sodium balance across a wide range of sodium intakes.

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