Tuition Funding for Common Schools

2008 ◽  
Vol 32 (1) ◽  
pp. 107-133
Author(s):  
Nancy Beadie
Keyword(s):  
New York ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
School Funding ◽  
State Level ◽  
Private Funding ◽  
Public And Private ◽  
Common Schools ◽  
Rural Town ◽  
Level Data

Funding for schools of all kinds was largely market-based until the Civil War. Parents in New York and other northern states continued to pay tuition, or rate bills, in addition to taxes to support common schools. Previous research relied on aggregate state-level data to estimate the amount of funding from public and nonpublic sources for common schools, while existing case studies of local school practices focus exclusively on Massachusetts or on urban locations and thus on exceptions to the rule. This study looks at local practices of school funding for multiple types of schools in one unexceptional rural town in western New York from 1815 to 1850. The results reveal considerable in-state variation in the proportion of public and private funding for common schools that is otherwise obscured by state-level data. The proportion of school funds that came from tuition was much higher for rural areas than for urban areas. The article also compares tuition funding for common schools with that for other types of market-based schooling, including two local venture schools and one local academy. The results show that, although tuition prices for academies and venture schools were predictably higher than for common schools, the overall structure of school funding for rural common schools and academies was more similar than different in New York in the antebellum era.

scholarly journals Back to the Countryside: Rural Development and the Spatial Patterns of Population Migration in Zhejiang, China

Agriculture ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (8) ◽  
pp. 788
Author(s):  
Weiming Tong ◽  
Kevin Lo
Keyword(s):  
Rural Development ◽  
Spatial Patterns ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Return Migration ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Population Migration ◽  
Dominant Form ◽  
Rural And Urban Areas ◽  
Rural And Urban ◽  
Level Data

This study examines how rural development in China shapes new trends in population migration. Using first-hand, village-level data from Zhejiang—an economically developed province in China—we investigated the patterns and influencing factors of population migration between rural and urban areas. We conceptualized three types of migration in rural areas: rural out-migration, rural in-migration, and rural return-migration. First-hand data were collected from 347 villages. The results show that although rural out-migration remains the dominant form of migration, rural in-migration and return-migration are also common, and the latter two are positively correlated. Further, we found evidence to support the conclusion that rural economic, social, and spatial development encourages rural in-migration and return-migration but does not have a significant impact on rural out-migration. Therefore, it is foreseeable that rural in-migration and return-migration will become increasingly common in China.

scholarly journals Seroprevalence in Tamil Nadu through India's two COVID waves: Evidence on antibody decline following infection and vaccination

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
T. S. Selvavinayagam ◽  
Anavarathan Somasundaram ◽  
Jerard Maria Selvam ◽  
Sabareesh Ramachandran ◽  
Sampath P. ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Tamil Nadu ◽  
Natural Infection ◽  
State Level ◽  
Elderly Age ◽  
Working Age ◽  
Serological Studies ◽  
Tamil Nadu State ◽  
Antibody Decline

Three rounds of population-representative serological studies through India's two COVID waves (round 1, 19 October-30 November 2020; round 2, 7-30 April 2021; and round 3, 28 June-7 July, 2021) were conducted at the district-level in Tamil Nadu state (population 72 million). State-level seroprevalence in rounds 1, 2 and 3 were 31.5%, 22.9%, and 67.1%. Estimated seroprevalence implies that at least 22.6 and 48.1 million persons were infected by the 30 November 2020 and 7 July 2021. There was substantial variation across districts in the state in each round. Seroprevalence ranged from 11.1 to 49.8% (round 1), 7.9 to 50.3% (round 2), and 37.8 to 84% (round 3). Seroprevalence in urban areas was higher than in rural areas (35.7 v. 25.7% in round 1, 74.8% v. 64.1% in round 3). Females had similar seroprevalence to males (30.8 v. 30.2% in round 1, 67.5 v. 65.5% in round 3). While working age populations (age 40-49: 31.6%) had significantly higher seroprevalence than the youth (age 18-29: 30.4%) or elderly (age 70+: 26.5%) in round 1, only the gap between working age (age 40-49: 66.7%) and elderly (age 70+: 59.6%) remained significant in round 3. Seroprevalence was greater among those who were vaccinated for COVID (25.7% v. 20.9% in round 2, 80.0% v. 62.3% in round 3). While the decline in seroprevalence from rounds 1 to 2 suggests antibody decline after natural infection, we do not find a significant decline in antibodies among those receiving at least 1 dose of COVID vaccine between rounds 2 and 3.

scholarly journals LUNG CANCER INCIDENCE IN VARIOUS CITIES OF THE WORLD (REVIEW)

2020 ◽  
Vol 66 (3) ◽  
pp. 239-246
Author(s):  
Liliya Zhuykova ◽  
Yevgeniy Choynzonov ◽  
Olga Ananina ◽  
Nina Lyakhova ◽  
Lidiya Pikalova
Keyword(s):  
Lung Cancer ◽  
New York ◽  
New York City ◽  
Cancer Incidence ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
New York State ◽  
Incidence Rates ◽  
Lung Cancer Incidence ◽  
Cancer Incidence Rates

Apart from smoking, an urban factor is an established risk factor for lung cancer. Lung cancer is associated with environmental factors, occupational exposure, bad habits and lifestyle factors. Approximately 17% of the annual deaths from lung cancer among adults are attributable to exposure to carcinogens located in the surface layer of the urban atmosphere, with industrial pollution and occupational hazards. According to recent data, 97% of cities in low- and middle-income countries with a population of more than 100 thousand people do not meet WHO recommendations for air quality; in high-income countries, this figure has been reduced to 49%. In the United States, the studies demonstrated that the prevalence of combined lung cancer was higher in urban areas (10.2%) than in rural areas (4.8%). There was a difference in the lung cancer incidence rates between the populations of the New York City and the New York State. In males, the lung cancer incidence rates were 1.4 times higher in the New York City than in the New York State (68.9 ± 1.2 0/0000 versus 48.5 ± 0.2 0/0000). In females, the lung cancer incidence rates were 1.2 times higher in the New York City than in the New York State (43.0 ± 0.3 and 34.9 ± 0.1 0/0000, respectively). In China, in urban areas, the lung cancer incidence mortality rates were 36.6 0/0000 and 28.9 0/0000, respectively. In rural areas, the corresponding values were 33.4 and 26.6 0/0000, respectively. Although the lung cancer incidence and mortality rates are higher in urban areas than in rural areas, these differences are gradually decreasing: the incidence rate between urban and rural areas has decreased from 2.1 to 1.1. The issue of the impact of environment on the incidence of lung cancer is challenging. The outdoor environment affects people’s health with varying degrees of intensity both in time and in space.

scholarly journals Mapping poverty using mobile phone and satellite data

2017 ◽  
Vol 14 (127) ◽  
pp. 20160690 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jessica E. Steele ◽  
Pål Roe Sundsøy ◽  
Carla Pezzulo ◽  
Victor A. Alegana ◽  
Tomas J. Bird ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Census Data ◽  
Data Sources ◽  
Human Potential ◽  
Public And Private ◽  
Middle Income ◽  
Mobile Data ◽  
Poverty Measures ◽  
Urban And Rural Areas

Poverty is one of the most important determinants of adverse health outcomes globally, a major cause of societal instability and one of the largest causes of lost human potential. Traditional approaches to measuring and targeting poverty rely heavily on census data, which in most low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) are unavailable or out-of-date. Alternate measures are needed to complement and update estimates between censuses. This study demonstrates how public and private data sources that are commonly available for LMICs can be used to provide novel insight into the spatial distribution of poverty. We evaluate the relative value of modelling three traditional poverty measures using aggregate data from mobile operators and widely available geospatial data. Taken together, models combining these data sources provide the best predictive power (highest r 2 = 0.78) and lowest error, but generally models employing mobile data only yield comparable results, offering the potential to measure poverty more frequently and at finer granularity. Stratifying models into urban and rural areas highlights the advantage of using mobile data in urban areas and different data in different contexts. The findings indicate the possibility to estimate and continually monitor poverty rates at high spatial resolution in countries with limited capacity to support traditional methods of data collection.

scholarly journals Risk factors for asthma among schoolchildren who participated in a case-control study in urban Uganda

eLife ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 8 ◽  
Author(s):  
Harriet Mpairwe ◽  
Milly Namutebi ◽  
Gyaviira Nkurunungi ◽  
Pius Tumwesige ◽  
Irene Nambuya ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Risk Factors ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Case Control Study ◽  
Tertiary Education ◽  
Economic Status ◽  
Case Control ◽  
Rural Town ◽  
Asthma Risk ◽  
Control Study

Data on asthma aetiology in Africa are scarce. We investigated the risk factors for asthma among schoolchildren (5–17 years) in urban Uganda. We conducted a case-control study, among 555 cases and 1115 controls. Asthma was diagnosed by study clinicians. The main risk factors for asthma were tertiary education for fathers (adjusted OR (95% CI); 2.32 (1.71–3.16)) and mothers (1.85 (1.38–2.48)); area of residence at birth, with children born in a small town or in the city having an increased asthma risk compared to schoolchildren born in rural areas (2.16 (1.60–2.92)) and (2.79 (1.79–4.35)), respectively; father’s and mother’s history of asthma; children’s own allergic conditions; atopy; and cooking on gas/electricity. In conclusion, asthma was associated with a strong rural-town-city risk gradient, higher parental socio-economic status and urbanicity. This work provides the basis for future studies to identify specific environmental/lifestyle factors responsible for increasing asthma risk among children in urban areas in LMICs.

scholarly journals Energy Elasticity in India: An Empirical study with Unit level Household Data

2019 ◽  
Vol 15 (2) ◽  
pp. 73-82
Author(s):  
Alok Pandey ◽  
Annapurna Dixit
Keyword(s):  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Urban Region ◽  
Level Energy ◽  
Household Level ◽  
Unit Level ◽  
Rural And Urban Areas ◽  
Dummy Variable ◽  
Rural And Urban ◽  
Level Data

In the present study an attempt has been made to estimate the responsiveness of prices and household expenditure on consumption of energy for cooking and lighting at household level in rural and urban areas of All India. Household level energy elasticities are estimated for the rural and urban areas with the help of dummy variable regression approach by using NSSO 66th quinnquenial rounds of unit level data.. The results reveal the fact that average expenditure recorded on energy for cooking and lighting in urban areas is higher than in rural areas at all India level. Majority of the households are using dirty fuel for cooking in rural areas while in urban areas clean fuel i.e. LPG is used for cooking. The expenditure on energy for cooking and lighting at household level is inelastic. The marginal budget share in rural and urban areas is the same. Result reveal the fact that hundred percent increase in prices of energy for cooking and lighting will increase the expenditure of households in rural region more than in urban region.

scholarly journals Factors Affecting Participation in the Milk Diversion Program in the U.S. and New York

1985 ◽  
Vol 14 (2) ◽  
pp. 193-202 ◽  
Author(s):  
David R. Lee ◽  
Richard N. Boisvert
Keyword(s):  
New York ◽  
Explanatory Power ◽  
State Level ◽  
Diversion Program ◽  
Factors Affecting ◽  
Policy Alternatives ◽  
Level Data ◽  
Dairy Policy ◽  
Linear Probability ◽  
The U.S

Participation in the 1984–85 Milk Diversion Program (MDP) is examined through the analysis of aggregate state level data for the U.S. and county level data from New York. Linear probability, logit and probit models of participation are estimated. The empirical results are highly similar across models and identify the important determinants of farmer participation in the MDP. Models explaining contracted diversion levels are also estimated but do not have the explanatory power of the participation models. The implications of the results for the analysis of U.S. dairy policy alternatives are discussed.

Growth, Inequality, Poverty, and Urbanization: the Case of India

2019 ◽  
pp. 674-734
Author(s):  
Arup Mitra
Keyword(s):  
Urban Areas ◽  
Rural Poverty ◽  
Participation Rate ◽  
State Level ◽  
Positive Association ◽  
Strongly Correlated ◽  
Urban Inequality ◽  
Level Data ◽  
Degree Of Association ◽  
The Relationship

In this chapter the analysis is pursued at three levels of disaggregation: states, districts, and cities with populations over one million. At the state level, urbanization does not show any significant impact on rural poverty, though it tends to reduce poverty in urban areas. Growth influences urbanization positively, while urbanization and expansion in non-agricultural activities both contribute to economic growth. Although urban inequality is not strongly correlated with urbanization and growth, the relationship is distinct. While poverty tends to decline, inequality rises in the process of growth and urbanization. The district-level data confirm a positive association between urbanization, work participation rate, percentage of workforce engaged in non-household manufacturing and services, literacy, growth, and inequality, though the degree of association is mild. Urbanization shows a strong beneficial effect on poverty at both the district and city levels.

scholarly journals An Assessment of the Access to Credit-Welfare Nexus: Evidence from Mauritania

2017 ◽  
Vol 12 (9) ◽  
pp. 77 ◽  
Author(s):  
Alessandra Amendola ◽  
Marinella Boccia ◽  
Gianluca Mele ◽  
Luca Sensini
Keyword(s):  
Rural Areas ◽  
Financial Services ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Credit Access ◽  
Access To Credit ◽  
Household Level ◽  
Support Strategies ◽  
Level Data ◽  
The Impact ◽  
The Relationship

This paper evaluates the impact of access to credit from banks and other financial institutions on household welfare in Mauritania. Household level data are used to evaluate the relationship between credit access, a range of household characteristics, and welfare indicators. To address the threats of potential endogeneity, an index of household isolation is used to instrument access to credit. Evidence on the validity of the exclusion restriction is provided showing that household isolation is unrelated with households and area characteristics six years prior to the measurements on which this analysis is based. Results show that households with older and more educated heads are more likely to access financial services, as are households living in urban areas. In addition, greater financial access is associated with a reduced dependence on household production and increased investment in human capital. The policy conclusions from our analysis support strategies for expanding financial infrastructures in underserved rural areas of Mauritania.

scholarly journals Viability of Organic Production in Rural Counties: County and State-Level Evidence from the United States

2011 ◽  
Vol 43 (3) ◽  
pp. 443-451 ◽  
Author(s):  
Genti Kostandini ◽  
Elton Mykerezi ◽  
Eftila Tanellari
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Organic Farming ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Agricultural Sector ◽  
State Level ◽  
The United States ◽  
Organic Production ◽  
Natural Amenities ◽  
Level Data ◽  
Positive Effect

We investigate the determinants of organic farming in the United States. State-level data show that the organic farming sector has grown over the last decade, but growth has been very heterogeneous with few states accounting for most of the growth. Further analyses of county data reveal that favorable natural amenities, water for irrigation, and government payments have a positive effect on most measures of organic farming used here. Results further point out that organic farming operations are more popular among young farmers. Adjacency to metro areas is also an important determinant for the number of organic operations. Organic farming is more important for the agricultural sector of the areas that are somewhat remote but that does not appear to be the case for very remote rural areas.

Sign in / Sign up

Export Citation Format

Share Document