Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing

Author(s):  
Brooke B. Chambers ◽  
Joachim J. Savelsberg

Genocide and ethnic cleansing are among the most deadly human-made catastrophes. Together with other forms of government violence, such as war crimes and crimes against humanity, the death toll they caused during the 20th century alone approximates 200 million. This is an estimated ten times higher than the number of deaths resulting from all violence committed in civil society during the same period. Yet the definition of genocide, its perception as a social problem, and the designation of responsible actors as criminals are all relatively recent. Globalization, international organizations, nongovernmental organizations, and cultural shifts are interrelated contributors to this process of redefinition. While genocide and ethnic cleansing often appear to be unpredictable and chaotic, they nonetheless underlie a socio-logic across time and space. As the field of study evolved, scholars debated the role of authority and ideology in enabling violence. Today, consensus has shifted away from deterministic explanations about intrinsic hatred engrained in particular groups to sociological factors. They include the role of political regimes, war, organization, and narratives of ethnic hatred, each of which can play a role in facilitating violence. Recent developments also include the creation of new institutional mechanisms that seek to punish perpetrators and prevent the occurrence of genocide and ethnic cleansing. Among them are criminal justice responses that work potentially through deterrence, but also—more fundamentally—through the initiation of cultural change. Prosecutions, as well as supplemental mechanisms such as truth commissions, may indeed lead to a radical shift in the perception of mass violence and those responsible for it, thereby delegitimizing genocidal and ethnic cleansing campaigns.

2018 ◽  
Vol 46 (6) ◽  
pp. 1136-1145
Author(s):  
H. Zeynep Bulutgil

This review article outlines the progress that the literature on the causes of ethnic cleansing has made in the last 10–15 years. The article specifically focuses on two lines of research that have expanded our understanding of ethnic cleansing: (a) the studies that focus on the role of wars (this literature can in turn be divided into those works that treat “wars as strategic environments” and those that treat “wars as transformational forces”); (b) the studies that focus on the pre-war domestic or international conditions that hinder or promote ethnic cleansing. The last section of the article suggests several future avenues of research that could further refine the study of ethnic cleansing and its relationship to other types of mass violence.


2018 ◽  
Vol 10 (1-2) ◽  
pp. 19-56 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jeremy Shusterman ◽  
Michelle Godwin

When the United Nations (un) agreed on a definition of the Responsibility to Protect (r2p) at the 2005 World Summit, the two paragraphs it endorsed articulated what r2p stands for, giving the concept a focused but narrow remit around protecting populations specifically from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity in armed conflict. In its next paragraph, the un Membership reiterated concerns on the impact of armed conflict on children echoing the landmark 1612 Resolution by the Security Council on Children and Armed Conflict (caac) adopted a few weeks before. Though side-by-side in the text, caac and r2p were not linked. To this day, for international practitioners in emergency responses, the interaction between both remains unclear. While this simultaneous peak moment for r2p and caac may have occurred by chance, this article describes how both concepts (as advocacy tools and instruments for practitioners to ‘respond’) emerged out of similar concern for protecting civilians – including children – in conflict. However, the link between both concepts should not be overstated. While r2p and caac fit together for the intentions they share, this happened more coincidentally than purposefully. This article argues, taking an international practitioner’s perspective, that both concepts should not be understood as always operating at the same level. caac has grown from an advocacy platform to an umbrella of different programmes, responses, tools and frameworks, including the Monitoring and Reporting Mechanism (mrm) on Children and Armed Conflict. Even if applied with variable success, these tools and approaches under the caac agenda chart some ways practitioners can hope to do more towards protecting children in conflict. But for those same practitioners, delivering on a Responsibility to Protect is a different question – one where their ‘responsibility’ is at best secondary and implicit, because r2p sits squarely as a primary and explicit responsibility of states – who are also the ultimate duty bearers for children’s rights. While the echoes of a child rights agenda can be heard in the conversation around r2p, and while r2p can help frame and drive efforts by child protection practitioners to respond to some of the worst situations children face, r2p is, for the protection agency field officer, an aspirational goal, necessarily out of reach.


Legal Studies ◽  
2014 ◽  
Vol 34 (4) ◽  
pp. 609-630
Author(s):  
Daithí Mac Síthigh

Following a century of legislation about film and the film industry in the UK, and the latest in a series of reports on ‘film policy’, this paper investigates the relationship between law, policy and film. Case studies on the definition of ‘film’ in a time of technological and cultural change consider the privileged position of the cinema in terms of censorship and tax, including the new phenomenon of ‘alternative content’; that is, live relays of theatrical performances. Institutional change is assessed and criticised, particularly the abolition of the UK Film Council and the steady move from statute to executive action. The paper sets out a case for the role of the state to be set out in legislation and the cultural consequences of legal definitions to be taken more seriously.


2009 ◽  
Vol 8 (2) ◽  
pp. 247-296 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hansdeep Singh

AbstractOn 27 September 2007, the Mrkšić Trial Chamber held that the unlawful killing of soldiers hors de combat ("out of the battle") did not entitle them to recognition as victims of crimes against humanity under Article 5 of the ICTY Statute. This article critically analyses the Court's mischaracterization of precedent, revealing both historical and contemporary support for a broader definition of "civilian population" under Article 5. Moreover, by looking at case law and statutes from Nuremberg, foreign countries, and international courts, a continuous pattern that encompasses soldiers hors de combat within the definition of "civilian population" begins to emerge. Ultimately, to validate the increasing role of international humanitarian and human rights law, international criminal law must provide greater protections for those most vulnerable, in this case, soldiers hors de combat.


2018 ◽  
Vol 2 ◽  
pp. 13-38
Author(s):  
Hakob Barseghyan

Recent developments in theoretical scientonomy coupled with a reflection on the practice of the Encyclopedia of Scientonomy all suggest that the ontology of scientific change currently accepted in scientonomy has serious flaws. The new ontology, suggested in this paper, solves some of the issues permeating the current ontology. Building on Rawleigh’s suggestion, it considers a theory as an attempt to answer a certain question. It also introduces the category of definition as a subtype of theory. It also reveals that methods and methodologies of the currently accepted ontology do not differ from the perspective of their propositional content and, thus, belong to the same class of epistemic elements. This is captured in the new definition of method as a set of criteria for theory evaluation. It is also argued that methods are a subtype of normative theories. It is shown that normative theories of all types, including methods, ethical norms, and aesthetic norms, can be both accepted and employed. Finally, a new definition of scientific mosaic is suggested to fit the new ontology.   Suggested Modifications [Sciento-2018-0005]: Accept the following definitions of method and methodology: Method ≡ a set of criteria for theory evaluation.  Methodology ≡ a normative discipline that formulates the rules which ought to be employed in theory assessment. Reject the previous definitions of method and methodology. [Sciento-2018-0006]: Accept the following ontology of epistemic elements, where:  Each theory is an attempt to answer a certain question. Theories can be of three types – descriptive, normative, or definitions. Method is a subtype of normative theory. Questions as well as theories of all types – including methods – can be accepted. Normative theories of all types can be employed; the name of the stance is norm employment. Accept the following definition of theory acceptance: Theory acceptance ≡ a theory is said to be accepted by the epistemic agent if it is taken as the best available answer to its respective question. Also accept the following questions as legitimate topics of inquiry: Role of Definitions in Scientific Change: Do definitions play any distinct role in the process of scientific change, or do they only exhibit the exact same patterns as descriptive and normative theories? Reducibility of Definitions: Are definitions a distinct subtype of theory, or are they somehow reducible to descriptive theories and/or normative theories? Reject the previous ontology of epistemic elements and the previous definition of theory acceptance. [Sciento-2018-0007]: Accept the following definition of definition: Definition ≡ A statement of the meaning of a term. [Sciento-2018-0008]: Provided that modification [Sciento-2018-0006] is accepted, accept the following definition of norm employment: Norm Employment ≡ a norm is said to be employed if its requirements constitute the actual expectations of the epistemic agent.  [Sciento-2018-0009]: Accept the new definition of scientific mosaic: Scientific Mosaic ≡ a set of all epistemic elements accepted and/or employed by the epistemic agent.  Reject the previous definition of scientific mosaic. [Sciento-2018-0010]: Accept that: Epistemic stances of all types can be taken explicitly and/or implicitly. Epistemic elements of all types can be explicit and/or implicit. Accept the following question as a legitimate topic of inquiry: Tracing Implicit/Explicit: Should observational scientonomy trace when a certain stance towards an epistemic element was taken explicitly or implicitly? What are the practical considerations for and against collecting and storing this data?


Author(s):  
Ester MANZANO PELÁEZ ◽  
Marta SABATÉ SOLANES

Laburpena: Helburu orokorrago eta handinahiago bat burutzeko ezarri da telelana Generalitat-ean: lan-modu berriak ezartzeko. Zentzu horretan, helburu hori aurrera eramateko eragile pragmatiko eta abiarazle gisa jotzen da telelana. Telelana arautzen duen arau-esparrua oinarrizkoa eta beharrezkoa izan arren, horretaz gainera hainbat elementu landu behar dira: mugigarritasuneko lan-profilaren definizioa, beharrezko ekipamenduen hornidura, azpiegituren eta sistemen prestakuntza, heziketa, inguru digitalen erabilera, talde-arduradunaren eginkizuna eta gaitasun digitalen jabetzea, besteak beste. Hortaz, telelana aldaketa kulturala behar du nahitaez, eta horretarako, langile publikoei ekimen zehatzen bidez lagundu behar diegu eta aldaketak sortzen dituen beldurrak gainditu behar ditugu. Telelana abiarazteak estrategia argia behar du, hainbat erabaki hartzeaz aparte. Erabaki horien artean hurrengoak ditugu: nor eta zenbat denboraz aritu daiteke telelanean? Zer bitarteko daude? Nola prestatuko gara? Segurtasunez lan egingo al dugu? Laburbilduz, telelanak lidergo-ereduaren aldaketak dakartza berekin. Lider kontrolatzailea lider bideratzaile bihurtu beharko da, produktibitatearen neurrian eta emaitzak era nabarmenean helburu izanda, eta konfiantza inposatuko da zer bitarteko bidez eta zer denbora tartean egin behar den argi badago. Abstract: The introduction of teleworking to the Catalan Government responds to a more general and ambitious intention which is the incorporation of the new working methods. Teleworking is therefore conceived as the pragmatic and accelerating lever which enables progress to be made in this respect. Although the normative framework which regulates telework is basic and necessary, work must also be carried out on a series of elements such as definition of the profile of the mobile work, providing the necessary equipment, the preparation of infrastructures and systems, training, the use of digital environments, the role of the team leader and the acquisition of digital skills. Thus, teleworking is only possible if it is associated with a cultural change and, to achieve this, we must accompany the publicly employed staff with specific initiatives and overcome the fears the change instills in us. The promotion of teleworking requires a clear-cut strategy and the making of decisions with respect to questions such as: Who can telework and for how long? What means are available? How do we prepare for it? Are we working with security? etc. At the end of the day, teleworking entails changes of paradigm in leadership, shifting from the controlling leader to the facilitator, according to productivity, with a clear-cut focus on results, where confidence takes hold provided that what has to be done is clearly established, with what means and in what period of time. Resumen: La introducción del teletrabajo en la Generalitat responde a un propósito más general y ambicioso como es la incorporación de las nuevas formas de trabajo. En este sentido, el teletrabajo se concibe como la palanca pragmática y aceleradora que permite avanzar en este propósito. Si bien el marco normativo que regula el teletrabajo es básico y necesario se precisa, además, trabajar una serie de elementos como son la definición del perfil de trabajo en movilidad, la dotación del equipo necesario, la preparación de la infraestructuras y sistemas, la formación, la utilización de los entornos digitales, el rol del responsable de equipo y la adquisición de las competencias digitales. Por tanto, el teletrabajo solo es posible si lleva asociado un cambio cultural y, para ello, debemos acompañar al personal empleado público con iniciativas concretas y superar los miedos que nos produce el cambio. El impulso del teletrabajo requiere de una estrategia clara y de la toma de decisión ante cuestiones tales cómo ¿quién puede teletrabajar y durante cuánto tiempo? ¿con qué medios se cuenta? ¿cómo nos preparamos? ¿trabajamos con seguridad?, etc. En resumen, el teletrabajo lleva asociados cambios de paradigma en el liderazgo pasando del líder controlador al facilitador, en la medida de la productividad con una orientación clara a resultados, donde la confianza se impone siempre y cuando se tenga claro qué hacer, con qué medios y en qué periodo de tiempo.


1989 ◽  
Vol 04 (18) ◽  
pp. 4735-4818 ◽  
Author(s):  
T. PADMANABHAN

Some recent developments in the study of quantum gravity and its semiclassical limit are reviewed. The discussion includes the role of constraint equations in quantization, the definition of 'time' in the semiclassical limit, the various forms of 'backreaction' in semiclassical gravity and the role of vacuum fluctuations in quantum gravity.


2019 ◽  
Vol 17 (5) ◽  
pp. 957-979 ◽  
Author(s):  
Rosemary Grey ◽  
Jonathan O’Donohue ◽  
Indira Rosenthal ◽  
Lisa Davis ◽  
Dorine Llanta

Abstract In 2019, in the case of Prosecutor v. Al Hassan, Prosecutor Bensouda sought confirmation of the first charge of gender-based persecution at the International Criminal Court (ICC). Given that no previous international tribunal had jurisdiction to prosecute persecution on ‘gender’ grounds, this was an important first step towards developing the jurisprudence on this crime. Meanwhile, the Rome Statute’s definition of ‘gender’ has been discussed and debated in the International Law Commission (ILC) in the context of the ongoing development of draft articles on crimes against humanity. In the context of these recent developments in the ICC and ILC, this article closely examines the Rome Statute’s definition of ‘gender’, and explores what ‘gender’ means as a ground of persecution. We conclude that as a result of the definition agreed to at the 1998 Rome Diplomatic Conference, the Rome Statute’s definition of ‘gender’ captures the social aspects of gender, consistent with widely accepted practice at the time of the Statute's adoption and in the two decades since. These are important facts to hold on to as the focus on the definition of ‘gender’ intensifies, the ICC’s jurisprudence on gender-based persecution evolves, and efforts advance to develop a new convention on crimes against humanity.


1996 ◽  
Vol 54 ◽  
pp. 9-23
Author(s):  
Kees de Bot

In this article a description is given of the language production process based on Levelťs 'Speaking'-model. Using this type of model will help us to understand better the subprocesses in language production and the kind of knowledge and procedures needed to produce language. A full definition of what knowledge is needed will also help us to model the different stages a language learner goes through. In the second part of this article recent developments with respect to the role of output in SLA are discussed from the perspective of the model presented. It is concluded that in language acquisition both input and output are needed and that in fact output may have as an important function the generation of very specific input that will support the acquisitional process.


Janus Head ◽  
2004 ◽  
Vol 7 (2) ◽  
pp. 319-331
Author(s):  
Keith Doubt ◽  

This study examines the ritualized character of crimes against humanity in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Encompassing a victim, a victimizer, and a witness, degradation ceremonies structured the activity of what is euphemistically called ethnic cleansing. The observing world played the role of witness, which became a perpetuating component of the ritual.The discussion leads to the formulation of evil as the degradation of not only an individual human being but also humanity itself.


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