scholarly journals Diagnostic value of miR-106a-5p in patients with psoriasis and its regulatory role in inflammatory responses

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Xiaolin Miao ◽  
Xinyun Tong ◽  
Jingsang Hu ◽  
Juan Wang
Keyword(s):  
Inflammatory Responses ◽  
Positive Association ◽  
Diagnostic Value ◽  
Tnf Alpha ◽  
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ◽  
Operating Characteristics ◽  
Necrosis Factor Alpha ◽  
Expression Levels ◽  
Promote Cell Proliferation ◽  
Specificity And Sensitivity

Abstract Background: Psoriasis is a multifactorial, recurring, and chronic inflammatory skin disease. This study was designed to explore the potential role of microRNA-106a-5p (miR-106a-5p) in psoriasis.Methods: The expression levels of miR-106a-5p in the serum of psoriasis patients and healthy individuals were detected by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). The diagnostic value of miR-106a-5p in serum was evaluated by the receiver operating characteristics curve (ROC). The levels of interleukin-22 (IL-22), interleukin-17A (IL-17A), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.Results: The serum expression of miR-106a-5p was found to be up-regulated in psoriasis patients. ROC curve showed that miR-106a-5p had high specificity and sensitivity in the diagnosis of psoriasis. The correlation between the serum expression level of miR-106a-5p and PASI was positive. The relative expression levels of IL-17A, IL-22 and TNF-alpha in serum of psoriasis patients were significantly upregulated compared with that in healthy control, and showed positive association with serum miR-106a-5p levels. Cell experiments demonstrated that upregulation of miR-106a-5p could promote cell proliferation, and the levels of IL-22, IL-17A and TNF-alpha were upregulated significantly in M5-induced HaCaT cells.Conclusion: Considering the novel and vital role in psoriasis progression, miR-106a-5p is expected to be a new potent target for treatment of psoriasis. MiR-106-5p was expected to use for more immunity diseases research and therapy.

scholarly journals Diagnostic Value of miR-106a-5p in Patients with Psoriasis and its Regulatory Role in Inflammatory Responses

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Xiaolin Miao ◽  
Xinyun Tong ◽  
Jingsang Hu ◽  
Juan Wang
Keyword(s):  
Inflammatory Responses ◽  
Positive Association ◽  
Diagnostic Value ◽  
Tnf Alpha ◽  
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ◽  
Operating Characteristics ◽  
Necrosis Factor Alpha ◽  
Expression Levels ◽  
Promote Cell Proliferation ◽  
Specificity And Sensitivity

Abstract Background: Psoriasis is a multifactorial, recurring, and chronic inflammatory skin disease. This study was designed to explore the potential role of microRNA-106a-5p (miR-106a-5p) in psoriasis.Methods: The expression levels of miR-106a-5p in the serum of psoriasis patients and healthy individuals were detected by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). The diagnostic value of miR-106a-5p in serum was evaluated by the receiver operating characteristics curve (ROC). The levels of interleukin-22 (IL-22), interleukin-17A (IL-17A), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.Results: The serum expression of miR-106a-5p was found to be up-regulated in psoriasis patients. ROC curve showed that miR-106a-5p had high specificity and sensitivity in the diagnosis of psoriasis. The correlation between the serum expression level of miR-106a-5p and PASI was positive. The relative expression levels of IL-17A, IL-22 and TNF-alpha in serum of psoriasis patients were significantly upregulated compared with that in healthy control, and showed positive association with serum miR-106a-5p levels. Cell experiments demonstrated that upregulation of miR-106a-5p could promote cell proliferation, and the levels of IL-22, IL-17A and TNF-alpha were upregulated significantly in M5-induced HaCaT cells.Conclusion: Considering the novel and vital role in psoriasis progression, miR-106a-5p is expected to be a new potent target for treatment of psoriasis. MiR-106-5p was expected to use for more immunity diseases research and therapy.

scholarly journals Dysregulation of miR-638 in diabetic nephropathy and its role in inflammatory response

2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Mei Lin ◽  
Dan Song ◽  
Suo Zhang ◽  
Ping Li
Keyword(s):  
Diabetic Nephropathy ◽  
Inflammatory Responses ◽  
Mesangial Cells ◽  
Diagnostic Value ◽  
Inflammatory Factors ◽  
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ◽  
Healthy Controls ◽  
Necrosis Factor Alpha

Abstract Background MicroRNA (miRNA) can be used as a biomarker for the early diagnosis of diabetic nephropathy (DN). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the diagnostic value of miR-638 in DN and to analyse its regulatory effect on inflammation. Methods This retrospective study involved 98 subjects, including non-diabetic healthy controls (n = 30), patients with type 2 diabetes (T2DM, n = 36) without complications and patients with DN (n = 32). After the anthropometric and biochemical evaluation, serum miR-638 levels were assessed by real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). The levels of inflammatory cytokines (interleukin [IL]-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-α]) were detected using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The Spearman correlations were used to analyze the correlation between miR-638 and urinary albumin excretion (UAE), estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), and inflammatory factors. Furthermore, the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was used to measure the diagnostic value of miR-638 in DN. Human mesangial cells (HMCs) were treated with normal glucose (NG, 5.5 mM glucose), high glucose (HG, 30 mM glucose), or high osmotic pressure solution (HO, 5.5 mM glucose + 24.5 mM mannitol) in vitro to simulate the hyperglycamic state in vivo. Subsequently, the HMCs were transfected with miR-638 mimics to regulate the level of miR-638 in the cells and detect its regulation on cell inflammation and proliferation. Results Compared with healthy controls and patients with T2DM, serum miR-638 in patients with DN was significantly lower. The reduced miR-638 expression has a significant diagnostic value, which can significantly distinguish patients with DN from healthy controls or patients with T2DM. Inflammatory factors were significantly upregulated in patients with DN and negatively correlated with miR-638 levels. In addition, miR-638 was negatively correlated with UAE and positively correlated with eGFR. HG decreased the level of miR-638 and promoted the expression of inflammatory factors and proliferation in HMCs. However, miR-638 mimic significantly decreased the levels of inflammatory factors and inhibited the proliferative ability induced by HG. Conclusions Serum miR-638 expression was low in DN and can be a potentially valuable biomarker for DN. This miRNA seems to influence inflammatory responses and participate in the progression of DN by regulating proliferation.

TNF-alpha and cyclooxygenase metabolites do not modulate C. albicans septic shock with disseminated candidiasis

1993 ◽  
Vol 74 (5) ◽  
pp. 2432-2442 ◽  
Author(s):  
G. M. Matuschak ◽  
C. A. Klein ◽  
T. L. Tredway ◽  
D. R. Schilly ◽  
A. J. Lechner
Keyword(s):  
Septic Shock ◽  
Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis ◽  
Sodium Dodecyl ◽  
Passive Immunization ◽  
Organ Injury ◽  
Tnf Alpha ◽  
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ◽  
Necrosis Factor Alpha ◽  
Disseminated Candidiasis ◽  
Alpha Production

We analyzed differences in host regulation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) production and pathophysiological responses in conscious rats after infection with two strains of pathogenic Candida albicans spp. (CA-1 and CA-2) compared with Escherichia coli serotype 055:B5 (EC). The hypothesis was tested that, in contrast to EC, hypotension, organ injury, and mortality after candidemia are not obligatorily dependent on TNF-alpha or TNF-alpha-induced cyclooxygenase pathway metabolites. Dose, viability, and strain-specific dependencies were established after intravenous 10(6) or 10(9) viable CA, as well as heat-killed (HK) or Formalin-inactivated (FI) CA blastospores, compared with live EC at the 24-h LD25 [10(9) colony-forming units (CFU)] and LD100 (10(10) CFU). Shock without endotoxemia developed 4–8 h after 10(9) live CA-1 or CA-2 (LD100 at 24 h) with disseminated yeast-mycelial transformation and increased microvascular permeability in multiple organs but not after HK or FI CA-1. Peak serum TNF-alpha after an LD100 of CA-1 or CA-2 was < 3% of LD25 EC values and was < 1% of peak values during lethal bacteremia. Similar pathogen-specific differences were found in liver- and lung-associated TNF. Production of functionally inactive TNF-alpha during candidemia was excluded by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis with Western blotting. Passive immunization against TNF-alpha 2 h before microbial challenge was not protective against CA but prevented otherwise lethal EC sepsis. Cyclooxygenase inhibition also failed to attenuate candidemic shock. We conclude that the magnitude and kinetics of TNF-alpha production and TNF-alpha-dependent immunophysiological responses are differentially regulated after lethal fungal vs. gram-negative bacterial infection. Thus TNF-alpha is not a pivotal mediator of the acute Candida septic shock syndrome with disseminated candidiasis.

Cytokines regulate membrane-bound leukocyte elastase on neutrophils: a novel mechanism for effector activity

1997 ◽  
Vol 272 (3) ◽  
pp. L385-L393 ◽  
Author(s):  
C. A. Owen ◽  
M. A. Campbell ◽  
S. S. Boukedes ◽  
E. J. Campbell
Keyword(s):  
Cell Surface ◽  
Inflammatory Responses ◽  
Tissue Injury ◽  
Human Leukocyte ◽  
Tnf Alpha ◽  
Elastase Activity ◽  
Leukocyte Elastase ◽  
Necrosis Factor Alpha ◽  
Proinflammatory Mediators ◽  
Membrane Bound

Membrane-bound leukocyte elastase activity on neutrophils may have potent proinflammatory effects. Herein, we report the effects of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), platelet-activating factor (PAF), N-formyl-leucyl-methionyl-phenylalanine (fMLP), and interleukin-8 (IL-8) on membrane-bound elastase expression. TNF-alpha or PAF alone induced only approximately two- to threefold increases in membrane-bound elastase but exhibited marked dose- and time-dependent priming effects for subsequent stimulation with fMLP or IL-8 (up to 20-fold increases in membrane-bound human leukocyte elastase compared with unstimulated cells). Optimally PAF-primed and fMLP-stimulated cells expressed 1.105 +/- 0.25 (SD) x 10(-17) mol [6.65 +/- 1.51 (SD) x 10(6) molecules] membrane-bound elastase activity/cell or approximately 12% of the content of unstimulated cells. Elastase binds to the cell surface by a charge-dependent mechanism since 1) incubation of cells with cationic molecules abrogated agonist-induced upregulation of membrane-bound elastase and 2) elastase was progressively eluted from the cell surface by solutions with increasing ionic strength. Thus interactions between proinflammatory mediators strikingly upregulate membrane-bound elastase on neutrophils, which may promote inflammatory responses and/or contribute to tissue injury.

Diagnostic Value of Serum Kallikrein-Related Peptidases 6 and 10 Versus CA125 in Ovarian Cancer

2011 ◽  
Vol 21 (4) ◽  
pp. 625-632 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mustafa Abdel Hafiz El Sherbini ◽  
Maha Mohamed Sallam ◽  
Emtiaz Abdel Kawy Shaban ◽  
Amr Hassan El-Shalakany
Keyword(s):  
Ovarian Cancer ◽  
Diagnostic Value ◽  
Maternity Hospital ◽  
Serum Markers ◽  
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ◽  
Diagnostic Specificity ◽  
Preoperative Serum ◽  
Specificity And Sensitivity ◽  
Serum Ca125 ◽  
Oncology Unit

Objectives:To assess the diagnostic value of serum KLK6 and KLK10 in patients with ovarian tumor in comparison to serum CA125.Methods:Based on clinical and sonographic findings, 90 patients were consecutively recruited at the Gynecological Oncology Unit, Ain Shams University Maternity Hospital. Preoperative serum KLK6 and/or KLK10 were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay technique. The patients' final diagnoses were those of the histopathological reports.Results:There were 27 malignant versus 63 benign cases. Serum markers' diagnostic specificity and sensitivity were 80.3/72.7, 56.8/64.0, and 39.53/58.3 for CA125, KLK6, and KLK10, respectively. Combination of CA125 with either of the other 2 markers revealed diagnostic enhancement with KLK10 (85.37/73.00) but not with KLK6 (42.86/86.36).Conclusions:In ovarian cancer, serum KLK6 and KLK10 may have much lower overall sensitivities than serum CA125. However, whereas serum KLK6 may improve the sensitivity of CA125, serum KLK10 may have the highest specificity among the 3 markers.

scholarly journals Presence of anti-acetylated peptide antibodies (AAPA) in inflammatory arthritis and other rheumatic diseases suggests discriminative diagnostic capacity towards early rheumatoid arthritis

2021 ◽  
Vol 13 ◽  
pp. 1759720X2110225
Author(s):  
Paul Studenic ◽  
Alessia Alunno ◽  
Daniela Sieghart ◽  
Holger Bang ◽  
Daniel Aletaha ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Rheumatoid Arthritis ◽  
Rheumatic Diseases ◽  
Diagnostic Value ◽  
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ◽  
Inflammatory Rheumatic Diseases ◽  
Operating Characteristics ◽  
Likelihood Ratios ◽  
Double Positive ◽  
Early Ra ◽  
Peptide Antibodies

Aims: To determine the diagnostic value of anti-acetylated peptide antibodies (AAPA) in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Methods: Three acetylated peptides (ac-lysine, ac-lysine.inv and ac-ornithine) derived from vimentin were employed to measure AAPA by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in sera of 120 patients with early RA (eRA), 195 patients with established RA (est RA), 99 healthy controls (HC), and 216 patients with other inflammatory rheumatic diseases. A carbamylated and a citrullinated version of the vimentin peptide were used additionally. Receiver operating characteristics and logistic regression analyses were used to assess the discriminative capacity of AAPA. Results: AAPA were detected in 60% of eRA and 68.7% of estRA patients, 22.2% of HC, and 7.1– 30.6% of patients with other rheumatic diseases. Importantly, AAPA were also present in 40% of seronegative RA patients, while antibodies to the carbamylated peptide were detected less frequently. Diagnostic sensitivity of individual peptides for eRA was 28.3%, 35.8%, and 34% for ac-lysine, ac-ornithine, and ac-lysine.inv, respectively. Positive likelihood ratios (LR+) for eRA versus HC were 14.0, 7.1, and 2.1. While the presence of a single AAPA showed varying specificity (range: 84–98%), the presence of two AAPA increased specificity considerably since 26.7% of eRA, as compared with 6% of disease controls, were double positive. Thus, double positivity discriminated eRA from axial spondyloarthritis with a LR+ of 18.3. Remarkably, triple positivity was 100% specific for RA, being observed in 10% of eRA and 21.5% of estRA patients, even in the absence of RF and ACPA. Conclusion: AAPA are highly prevalent in early RA and occur also independently of RF and ACPA, thereby reducing the gap of seronegativity. Furthermore, multiple AAPA reactivity increased the specificity for RA, suggesting high diagnostic value of AAPA testing.

scholarly journals Beneficial effects of Spirogyra Neglecta Extract on antioxidant and anti-inflammatory factors in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Behzad Mesbahzadeh ◽  
Seyed Ali Rajaei ◽  
Parnia Tarahomi ◽  
Seyed Ali Seyedinia ◽  
Mehrnoush Rahmani ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Oxidative Stress ◽  
Inflammatory Responses ◽  
Total Antioxidant Status ◽  
Serum Levels ◽  
Diabetic Control ◽  
Diabetic Rats ◽  
Inflammatory Factors ◽  
Tnf Alpha ◽  
Serum Concentrations ◽  
Necrosis Factor Alpha

Objectives: This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of oral supplementation of Spirogyra algae on oxidative damages and inflammatory responses in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. Methods: Diabetes was induced by administration of 55 mg/kg of streptozotocin. A total of sixty-four rats were divided into eight groups of eight rats each as follows:1) non-diabetic control; 2, 3, and 4) non-diabetic rats treated with 15, 30, and 45 mg of Spirogyra algae/kg/d; 5) control diabetic; and 6, 7, and 8) diabetic rats treated with 15, 30, and 45 mg of Spirogyra algae extract. At the end of the trial, the serum concentrations of glucose, interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH), total antioxidant status (TAS), C-reactive protein (CRP), insulin, triglycerides, and cholesterol were examined by specified procedures. Results: Our findings indicated that the administration of STZ significantly increased the serum concentrations of glucose, triglycerides, cholesterol, CRP, IL-6, TNF-alpha), and MDA and decreased the serum levels of GSH and TAS (P<0.05) in diabetic rats. Oral administration of Spirogyra alleviated adverse effects of diabetes on oxidative stress and inflammatory factors in diabetic rats (P<0.05). Conclusion: It can be stated that Spirogyra algae extract can be used for treatment of diabetes likely due to prevention of oxidative stress and alleviation of inflammation in the rat model.

MicroRNA-96 is downregulated in sepsis neonates and attenuates LPSinduced inflammatory response by inhibiting IL-16 in monocytes

2020 ◽  
Vol 23 ◽  
Author(s):  
Chunlei Zhang ◽  
Xiuting Li ◽  
Na Liu ◽  
Zijian Feng ◽  
Chengyuan Zhang
Keyword(s):  
Inflammatory Response ◽  
Inflammatory Responses ◽  
Diagnostic Value ◽  
Luciferase Reporter ◽  
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ◽  
Real Time Quantitative Pcr ◽  
Non Invasive ◽  
Causes Of Mortality ◽  
Underlying Mechanisms ◽  
Relationship Of

Background: Neonatal sepsis (NS) remains one of the leading causes of mortality among newborns. This study found the deregulated microRNA-96 (miR-96) in NS neonates, and aimed to evaluate the clinical significance of miR-96, as well as its effect on LPS-induced inflammatory response in monocytes. In addition, the relationship of interleukin-16 (IL16) and miR-96 was investigated to understand the underlying mechanisms. Methods: Expression of miR-96 was examined using real-time quantitative PCR. Monocytes stimulated by LPS was used to mimic excessive inflammation in the pathogenesis of NS. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was applied to evaluate pro-inflammatory cytokines levels. A luciferase reporter assay was used to confirm the interaction between miR-96 and IL16. Results: Serum miR-96 expression was decreased in NS newborns and had considerable diagnostic value for NS screening. LPS inhibited miR-96 expression in monocytes, and the overexpression of miR-96 could reverse the effects of LPS on the inflammation of monocytes. IL-16 was a target gene of miR-96 and negatively correlated with miR-96 levels in NS neonates. The inhibited inflammatory responses induced by miR-96 overexpression was abolished by the elevated IL-16 in monocytes. Conclusion: All the data reveal that serum decreased miR-96 may serve as a candidate non-invasive biomarker for NS diagnosis. In addition, miR-96 inhibits LPS-induced inflammatory responses by targeting IL-16 in monocytes. The miR96/IL-16 axis may provide novel therapeutic targets for NS treatment.

Anti-Inflammatory Effect of KW-2449 on Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis: An Experimental Study on Mice

2020 ◽  
Vol 20 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hasan Namdar Ahmadabad ◽  
Allireza Abbaspour ◽  
Yaser Panahi ◽  
Saeed Tahmasebi ◽  
Nikoo Hossein‐khannazer ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Kinase Inhibitor ◽  
Inflammatory Responses ◽  
Clinical Score ◽  
Serum Levels ◽  
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ◽  
Aurora A ◽  
Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis ◽  
Necrosis Factor Alpha ◽  
Multikinase Inhibitor ◽  
Tnf Α

Background: The KW-2449 is a novel multikinase inhibitor that inhibits FLT3, ABL, ABL-T315I, and Aurora A. FLT3 and Aurora A kinases play an important role in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS). KW-2449 could modulate immune cells but the immunomodulatory effects of KW-2449 on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) have not been investigated yet. The aim of the present study is to investigate the effects of KW-2449 on EAE mouse model. Methods: In this study, C57BL/6 EAE mice were orally treated with (10 mg/kg/day) KW-2449 solution and compared with both EAE and control mice. Following the treatment, histological analyses were performed on brain and cerebellums to evaluate the pathological score. The gene expression levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2) were measured using qRT-PCR. The serum levels of TNF-α, IL-6, CCL-2 and MMP-2 were determined by using quantitative enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Results: The results indicated that the clinical score, the infiltration of inflammatory cells and the demyelination in EAE mice treated with KW-2449 decreased significantly compared to control groups. KW-2449 also decreased TNF-α, IL-6, CCL-2 inflammatory cytokines and MMP-2 in both brain mRNA expressions and serum levels of EAE mice. Conclusion: The KW-2449, aging as a multi-kinase inhibitor, modulates the inflammatory responses of cytokine cascades either in brain or in plasma and reduces EAE pathogenesis manifestation.

scholarly journals Levels of Soluble CD163 and Severity of Malaria in Children in Ghana

2008 ◽  
Vol 15 (9) ◽  
pp. 1456-1460 ◽  
Author(s):  
Kwadwo A. Kusi ◽  
Ben A. Gyan ◽  
Bamenla Q. Goka ◽  
Daniel Dodoo ◽  
George Obeng-Adjei ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Inflammatory Responses ◽  
Malaria Episode ◽  
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ◽  
Necrosis Factor Alpha ◽  
Soluble Cd163 ◽  
Complicated Malaria ◽  
Tnf Α ◽  
Patient Groups ◽  
Factor Alpha ◽  
Anti Inflammatory

ABSTRACT CD163 is an acute-phase-regulated monocyte/macrophage membrane receptor expressed late in inflammation. It is involved in the haptoglobin-mediated removal of free hemoglobin from plasma, has been identified as a naturally soluble plasma glycoprotein with potential anti-inflammatory properties, and is possibly linked to an individual's haptoglobin phenotype. High levels of soluble CD163 (sCD163) in a malaria episode may therefore downregulate inflammation and curb disease severity. In order to verify this, the relationships between sCD163 levels, malaria severity, and selected inflammatory mediators (tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-α], interleukin-6 [IL-6], and IL-10) were assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using plasma samples obtained from pediatric malaria patients with uncomplicated malaria (UM [n = 38]), cerebral malaria (CM [n = 52]), and severe malarial anemia (SA [n = 55]) during two consecutive malaria transmission seasons (2002 and 2003). Median sCD163 levels were higher in UM (11.9 μg/ml) patients than in SA (7.7 μg/ml; P = 0.010) and CM (8.0 μg/ml; P = 0.031) patients. Levels of sCD163 were also higher in all patient groups than in a group of 81 age-matched healthy controls. The higher sCD163/TNF-α ratio in UM patients, coupled with the fact that sCD163 levels correlated with TNF-α levels in UM patients but not in CM and SA patients, suggests inflammatory dysregulation in the complicated cases. The study showed that sCD163 levels are elevated during acute malaria. High sCD163 levels in UM patients may be due to the induction of higher-level anti-inflammatory responses, enabling them to avoid disease complications. It is also possible that UM patients simply lost their CD163 receptors from macrophages in inflammatory sites while complicated-malaria patients still had their receptors attached to activated macrophages, reflecting ongoing and higher-level inflammation associated with complicated malaria.

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