COVID-19: Our Current Knowledge of Epidemiology, Pathology, Therapeutic Approaches, and Diagnostic Methods

: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2(SARS-CoV-2) firstly emerged in Wuhan, China at the end of 2019. After going through the experimental process, the virus was named the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) by the World Health Organization (WHO) in February 2020 which has created a global pandemic. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection is challenging the people who are especially suffering from chronic health problems such as asthma, diabetes, and heart disease or immune system deteriorating disorders, including cancers, Alzheimer's, etc. Other predisposing/risk factors consist of smoking and age (elderly people are at higher risk). The 2019-nCoV attacks epithelial cells in all organs, particularly epithelial cells in the lungs, resulting in viral pneumonia. The 2019-nCoV starts its invasion with the attachment and entry into the respiratory tract epithelial cells via angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors on the epithelial cells. The critical problem with 2019-nCoV is its ability in human to the human asymptomatic transmission which causes the rapid and hidden spread of the virus among the population. Also, there are several reports of highly variable and tightly case-dependent clinical manifestations caused by SARS-CoV2, which made the virus more enigmatic. The clinical symptoms are varied from common manifestations which occurred in flu and cold, such as cough, fever, body-ache, trembling, and runny nose to severe conditions, like the acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) or even uncommon/unusual symptoms such as anosmia, skin color change, and stroke. In fact, besides serious injuries in the respiratory system, COVID-19 invades and damages various organs, including the kidney, liver, gastrointestinal, and nervous system. Accordingly, to cut the transmission chain of disease and control the infection spread. One of the major solutions seems to be early detection of the carriers, particularly the asymptomatic people with the help of sensitive and accurate diagnostic techniques. Moreover, developing novel and appropriate therapeutic approaches will contribute to the suitable management of the pandemic. Therefore, there is an urgent necessity to make comprehensive investigations and study reviews about COVID-19, offering the latest findings of novel therapies, drugs, epidemiology, and routes of virus transmission and pathogenesis. In this review, we discuss new therapeutic outcomes and cover and the most significant aspects of COVID-19, including the epidemiology, biological features, organs failure, and diagnostic techniques.

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The Undiscovered Potential of Essential Oils for Treating SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19)

Current Pharmaceutical Design ◽

10.2174/1381612826666201015154611 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 26 (41) ◽

pp. 5261-5277

Author(s):

Peter J. Wilkin ◽

Minnatallah Al-Yozbaki ◽

Alex George ◽

Girish K. Gupta ◽

Cornelia M. Wilson

Keyword(s):

Essential Oils ◽

Clinical Symptoms ◽

Synergistic Effects ◽

World Health Organisation ◽

Diagnostic Techniques ◽

World Health ◽

Clinical Aspects ◽

Traditional Use ◽

In Silico Studies ◽

The World

On 11th March 2020, the World Health Organisation (WHO) announced a pandemic caused by a novel beta-coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, designated COVID-19. The virus emerged in December 2019 in Wuhan, China, has spread across the world as a global pandemic. The traditional use of medicines from plants can be traced back to 60,000 years. Global interest in the development of drugs from natural products has increased greatly during the last few decades. Essential oils (EOs) have been studied through the centuries and are known to possess various pharmaceutical properties. In the present review, we have highlighted the current biology, epidemiology, various clinical aspects, different diagnostic techniques, clinical symptoms, and management of COVID-19. An overview of the antiviral action of EOs, along with their proposed mechanism of action and in silico studies conducted, is described. The reported studies of EOs' antiviral activity highlight the baseline data about the additive and/or synergistic effects among primary or secondary phytoconstituents found in individual oils, combinations or blends of oils and between EOs and antiviral drugs. It is hoped that further research will provide better insights into EOs' potential to limit viral infection and aid in providing solutions through natural, therapeutically active agents.

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Characteristics of examination algorithm of patients with chronic trauma of the oral mucosa using tissue autofluorescence spectroscopy

Periodontology ◽

10.33925/1683-3759-2021-26-2-163-169 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 26 (2) ◽

pp. 163-169

Author(s):

V. A. Gordeeva ◽

I. V. Kulik ◽

E. A. Khromova ◽

A. L. Rubezhov ◽

M. V. Gordeeva

Keyword(s):

Oral Mucosa ◽

Clinical Manifestations ◽

Diagnostic Techniques ◽

Diagnostic Methods ◽

Control Group ◽

Chronic Trauma ◽

Autofluorescence Spectroscopy ◽

Risk Zones ◽

Cancerous Lesions ◽

Group 5

Relevance. The paper demonstrates the need to implement modern diagnostic techniques for diagnosis of precancerous and cancerous lesions at early or preclinical stages. Additional diagnostic methods are necessary, e.g. tissue autofluorescence, which allows revealing insidious pathological risk zones, particularly precancerous and cancerous lesions, to evaluate the condition of the oral tissues in patients with chronic oral mucosa disorders, especially caused by trauma. Purpose – to assess trauma-specific effectiveness of autofluorescence spectroscopy (AFS) in risk group patients with chronic trauma of the oral mucosa to reveal early malignization signs.Materials and methods. 25 subjects were selected for the study and divided into 2 groups: main group – 20 patients with different manifestations of chronic oral mucosa trauma; control group – 5 subjects without visible clinical manifestations and without oral trauma factors. Autofluorescence spectroscopy was performed in both groups using AFS-400 stomatoscope.Results. The received data demonstrated that the change in autofluorescence doesn’t allow drawing final conclusions on the presence or absence of chronic oral trauma malignization signs.Conclusion. AFS-400 stomatoscope may be effective in differentiating between healthy and damaged tissues, but there is no solid evidence that the change in fluorescence shade can help differentiate between various types of damaged tissues. Autofluorescence spectroscopy should be considered as an additional method for examination of patients with chronic oral mucosa trauma to reveal early malignization signs.

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Erectile Impotence from Veno-Occlusive Dysfunction: Our Experience and Present Diagnostic-Therapeutic Indications

Urologia Journal ◽

10.1177/039156039306000314 ◽

1993 ◽

Vol 60 (3) ◽

pp. 283-287

Author(s):

A. Meazza ◽

V. Nebulone ◽

L Musso ◽

F. Pachera ◽

G. Reali ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Dynamic Testing ◽

Diagnostic Techniques ◽

Diagnostic Methods ◽

Functional Evaluation ◽

Therapeutic Approaches ◽

Radiographic Images ◽

Non Invasive ◽

Appropriate Treatment ◽

Erectile Impotence

The authors evaluate erectile impotence from veno-occlusive dysfunction, concentrating on diagnostic techniques, both invasive and non-invasive, and appropriate treatment. In particular dynamic testing is reviewed, where a vasoactive drug, Papaverine or more recently PGE1, is injected into one of the corpora cavernosa. Measurement of blood flow velocity with Doppler ultrasonography allows a functional evaluation, while radiographic images during cavernosography give an anatomical view of the erectile abnormality. A review of case histories and partial follow-up of patients has confirmed the actual precision of the diagnostic methods and various therapeutic approaches.

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An Overview of the Epidemiologic, Diagnostic and Treatment Approaches of COVID-19: What do We Know?

Public Health Reviews ◽

10.3389/phrs.2021.1604061 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 42 ◽

Author(s):

Hanieh Beyrampour-Basmenj ◽

Morteza Milani ◽

Abbas Ebrahimi-Kalan ◽

Ziyad Ben Taleb ◽

Kenneth D Ward ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Clinical Symptoms ◽

Current Knowledge ◽

Treatment Strategies ◽

World Health ◽

Treatment Approaches ◽

Number Of Patients ◽

Control And Prevention ◽

History Of ◽

Health Organization ◽

Available Information

Background: In late December 2019, a new infectious respiratory disease (COVID-19) was reported in a number of patients with a history of exposure to the Huanan seafood market in China. The World Health Organization officially announced the COVID-19 pandemic on March 11, 2020. Here, we provided an overview of the epidemiologic, diagnostic and treatment approaches associated with COVID-19.Methods: We reviewed the publications indexed in major biomedical databases by December 20, 2020 or earlier (updated on May 16, 2021). Search keywords included a combination of: COVID-19, Coronavirus disease 2019, SARS-CoV-2, Epidemiology, Prevention, Diagnosis, Vaccine, and Treatment. We also used available information about COVID-19 from valid sources such as WHO.Results and Conclusion: At the time of writing this review, while most of the countries authorized COVID-19 vaccines for emergency use starting December 8, 2020, there is no a definite cure for it. This review synthesizes current knowledge of virology, epidemiology, clinical symptoms, diagnostic approaches, common treatment strategies, novel potential therapeutic options for control and prevention of COVID-19 infection, available vaccines, public health and clinical implications.

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Immune Responses against SARS-CoV-2—Questions and Experiences

Biomedicines ◽

10.3390/biomedicines9101342 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 9 (10) ◽

pp. 1342

Author(s):

Harald Mangge ◽

Markus Kneihsl ◽

Wolfgang Schnedl ◽

Gerald Sendlhofer ◽

Francesco Curcio ◽

...

Keyword(s):

T Cell ◽

Immune Responses ◽

Neutralizing Antibodies ◽

Clinical Symptoms ◽

Current Knowledge ◽

Clinical Manifestations ◽

Immune Reactivity ◽

Fatigue Syndrome ◽

Open Questions ◽

Systemic Symptoms

Understanding immune reactivity against SARS-CoV-2 is essential for coping with the COVID-19 pandemic. Herein, we discuss experiences and open questions about the complex immune responses to SARS-CoV-2. Some people react excellently without experiencing any clinical symptoms, they do not get sick, and they do not pass the virus on to anyone else (“sterilizing” immunity). Others produce antibodies and do not get COVID-19 but transmit the virus to others (“protective” immunity). Some people get sick but recover. A varying percentage develops respiratory failure, systemic symptoms, clotting disorders, cytokine storms, or multi-organ failure; they subsequently decease. Some develop long COVID, a new pathologic entity similar to fatigue syndrome or autoimmunity. In reality, COVID-19 is considered more of a systemic immune–vascular disease than a pulmonic disease, involving many tissues and the central nervous system. To fully comprehend the complex clinical manifestations, a profound understanding of the immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 is a good way to improve clinical management of COVID-19. Although neutralizing antibodies are an established approach to recognize an immune status, cellular immunity plays at least an equivalent or an even more important role. However, reliable methods to estimate the SARS-CoV-2-specific T cell capacity are not available for clinical routines. This deficit is important because an unknown percentage of people may exist with good memory T cell responsibility but a low number of or completely lacking peripheral antibodies against SARS-CoV-2. Apart from natural immune responses, vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 turned out to be very effective and much safer than naturally acquired immunity. Nevertheless, besides unwanted side effects of the currently available vector and mRNA preparations, concerns remain whether these vaccines will be strong enough to defeat the pandemic. Altogether, herein we discuss important questions, and try to give answers based on the current knowledge and preliminary data from our laboratories.

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SARS-CoV-2 Biochemistry, Transmission, Clinical Manifestations, and Prevention

International Journal of Biomedicine ◽

10.21103/article10(4)_ge ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 10 (4) ◽

pp. 303-311

Author(s):

Gundu H. R. Rao

Keyword(s):

Public Health ◽

Clinical Symptoms ◽

Clinical Manifestations ◽

World Health ◽

Contact Tracing ◽

The Novel ◽

The Us ◽

Novel Virus ◽

Novel Coronavirus ◽

Health Experts

The first human case of COVID-19, caused by the novel coronavirus, was reported by health officials in the city of Wuhan, China, in December of 2019. The virus was identified as a novel coronavirus in early January 2020, and its genetic sequence was shared publicly on January 11, 2020. The novel virus, previously called 2019-novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV), is currently designated as the severe respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). On January 23, Wuhan was locked down, and the World Health Organization (WHO) declared a “public health emergency of international concern.” The viral genome of SARS-CoV-2 is around 29.8 kilobase, containing six major open reading frames. The most common clinical symptoms were fever, cough, fatigue, shortness of breath, dyspnea, muscle ache, headache, chest pain, vomiting, sore throat, and sputum production. The main mode of transmission is through respiratory particles. The incubation period is 3 to 7 days. Both asymptomatic and symptomatic patients seem to be infectious. Spike (S) proteins of SARS-CoV-2 seem to have a 10- to 20-fold higher affinity to the human angiotensin enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor than that of SARS-CoV. The high affinity of S protein to theACE2 receptor, and the additional advantages offered by the transfection facilitators Furin and Neutropilin-1, likely, contributes to the rapid spreading of this novel virus. Since these receptors are highly expressed on a variety of cells, including vascular endothelial cells and adipose tissue, individuals with compromised function of these tissues drive greater infection and severity in patients with COVID-19. Global health experts estimate that one in five individuals worldwide could be at risk for severe COVID-19, due to underlying health conditions. There is a great need for a rapid, specific, cost-effective test for monitoring the infected individuals. Even though a 15- minute, antigen test was made available by Abbott recently, it seems that the schools, colleges, and business establishments lack the ability to use these tests effectively to keep their businesses open safely. Management of the infected individuals seems to be based on clinical symptoms that manifest as the disease progresses. The US Food & Drug Administration (FDA), has created a special emergency program for possible therapies, the Coronavirus Treatment Acceleration Program (CTAP). The program uses every available method to move new and emerging treatments as quickly as possible, keeping in mind the safety and efficacy of such therapies. According to the WHO report, there are currently more than 150 COVID-19 vaccine candidates under development. Several vaccines are in Phase 3 clinical trials. In an unprecedented effort, one of the experimental monoclonal antibody cocktails of Regeneron was used for therapeutic purposes when the US president was tested positive for COVID-19. There are no drugs or other therapeutics approved by the US FDA to prevent or treat COVID-19. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) have published interim guidelines for the medical management of COVID-19. In the absence of a cure, the only choice we all have is to follow the best practices recommended by the public health experts—use of face masks (coverings), frequent hand washing with soap, contact tracing of infected individuals, and quarantining COVID-19 positive individuals, till they are free of the highly infectious virus.

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Janus-faced spatacsin (SPG11): involvement in neurodevelopment and multisystem neurodegeneration

Brain ◽

10.1093/brain/awaa099 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 143 (8) ◽

pp. 2369-2379

Author(s):

Tatyana Pozner ◽

Martin Regensburger ◽

Tobias Engelhorn ◽

Jürgen Winkler ◽

Beate Winner

Keyword(s):

Clinical Symptoms ◽

Current Knowledge ◽

Clinical Manifestations ◽

Lower Limbs ◽

Pathogenic Variants ◽

Structural Abnormalities ◽

Neuronal Systems ◽

And Function ◽

The Impact

Abstract Hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP) is a heterogeneous group of rare motor neuron disorders characterized by progressive weakness and spasticity of the lower limbs. HSP type 11 (SPG11-HSP) is linked to pathogenic variants in the SPG11 gene and it represents the most frequent form of complex autosomal recessive HSP. The majority of SPG11-HSP patients exhibit additional neurological symptoms such as cognitive decline, thin corpus callosum, and peripheral neuropathy. Yet, the mechanisms of SPG11-linked spectrum diseases are largely unknown. Recent findings indicate that spatacsin, the 280 kDa protein encoded by SPG11, may impact the autophagy-lysosomal machinery. In this update, we summarize the current knowledge of SPG11-HSP. In addition to clinical symptoms and differential diagnosis, our work aims to link the different clinical manifestations with the respective structural abnormalities and cellular in vitro phenotypes. Moreover, we describe the impact of localization and function of spatacsin in different neuronal systems. Ultimately, we propose a model in which spatacsin bridges between neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative phenotypes of SPG11-linked disorders.

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Allergic reactions to cow’s milk: pathomechanism, diagnostic and therapeutic strategies, possibilities of food tolerance induction

Postępy Higieny i Medycyny Doświadczalnej ◽

10.5604/01.3001.0011.8254 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 72 ◽

pp. 339-349 ◽

Cited By ~ 1

Author(s):

Magdalena Wąsik ◽

Katarzyna Nazimek ◽

Krzysztof Bryniarski

Keyword(s):

Hypersensitivity Reaction ◽

Current Knowledge ◽

Clinical Manifestations ◽

Therapeutic Strategies ◽

Diagnostic Methods ◽

Delayed Type Hypersensitivity ◽

Cow’S Milk ◽

Allergic Reactions ◽

Ige Antibodies ◽

Cow's Milk

Cow’s milk is one of the most common causes of allergic reactions in children. Present review summarizes the current knowledge on the pathogenesis, diagnostics and possible therapeutic strategies in this type of allergic immune response. Hypersensitivity reaction to milk components can be mediated by humoral or cell mediated response. There are also mixed types of reactions, in which both, cells and IgE antibodies are involved. The pathomechanism of delayed-type hypersensitivity to cow’s milk is still not clear, but possibly it involves Th1 lymphocytes and macrophages. Clinical manifestations of allergy to cow’s milk may be different, depending on the underlying mechanism. Routine diagnostic methods are based on specific IgE-antibodies detection in patients serum, but, if food allergy is suspected, it’s necessary to also conduct other tests for eventual exclusion of non-IgE-mediated allergy. Immediate and accurate diagnosis allows to avoid serious gastro-intestinal complications, which may lead to children developmental disabilities and also weakening of the intestinal epithelium. Other potential food allergens may penetrate through impaired intestinal barrier to bloodstream, where they can induce allergic reaction. Recommended therapeutic strategy consists of elimination of offending food from child diet. Currently, it’s possible to identify the specific protein responsible for hypersensitivity reaction. It could be especially important if one of them is bovine serum albumin, because it may be necessary to also exclude beef from diet. Safety and effectiveness of alternative immunotherapies are still being investigated. The majority of children acquire tolerance to cow’s milk by the age of 5.

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Coccidiosis Disease in Cattle in Indonesia and Development of Diagnostic Techniques

Indonesian Bulletin of Animal and Veterinary Sciences ◽

10.14334/wartazoa.v29i3.2010 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 29 (3) ◽

pp. 133

Author(s):

Fitrine Ekawasti ◽

April H Wardhana

Keyword(s):

Diagnostic Method ◽

Clinical Symptoms ◽

Eimeria Species ◽

Morphological Characteristics ◽

Diagnostic Techniques ◽

Diagnostic Methods ◽

Economic Losses ◽

Eimeria Spp ◽

The Government ◽

Cattle Farms

Coccidiosis is a parasitic disease caused by the protozoan of the order Coccidia, the family Eimeriidae of the genus Eimeria which breeds rapidly in the digestive tract and is the most difficult disease to be controlled on cattle farms. Eimeria spp. in cattle can cause high economic losses and increase susceptibility against infectious diseases. Therefore, coccidiosis in cattle needs attention from the government. This paper reviews a number of diagnostic methods that can be used in the detection of Eimeria spp. in cattle based on the goals and objectives of the examination. The coccidiosis cases often do not show any clinical symptoms but can cause sudden death in livestock. The diagnostic method that still used at present is based on its morphology that should not be used in identifying Eimeria species because the morphological characteristics Eimeria spp. have similar shape and size structures between species (resembling morphology). An appropriate diagnostic method for Eimeria is needed in the context of controlling coccidiosis strategically.

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COVID-19: molecular and serological detection methods

PeerJ ◽

10.7717/peerj.10180 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 8 ◽

pp. e10180 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Ahmed E. Dhamad ◽

Muna A. Abdal Rhida

Keyword(s):

Early Detection ◽

Current Knowledge ◽

Early Stage ◽

Diagnostic Methods ◽

World Health ◽

Detection Methods ◽

Gold Standard Method ◽

Advantages And Disadvantages ◽

The World ◽

Health Organization

Since COVID-19, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), was declared as a pandemic disease by the World Health Organization in early 2020, many countries, organizations and companies have tried to find the best way to diagnose the virus and contain its spreading. SARS-CoV-2 is a positive-sense single RNA (+ssRNA) coronavirus and mainly spreads through droplets, respiratory secretions, and direct contact. The early detection of the virus plays a central role in lowering COVID19 incidents and mortality rates. Thus, finding a simple, accurate, cheap and quick detection approach for SARS-CoV-2 at early stage of the viral infection is urgent and at high demand all around the world. The Food and Drug Administration and other health agencies have declared Emergency Use Authorization to develop diagnostic methods for COVID-19 and fulfill the demand. However, not all developed methods are appropriate and selecting a suitable method is challenging. Among all detection methods, rRT-PCR is the gold standard method. Unlike molecular methods, serological methods lack the ability of early detection with low accuracy. In this review, we summarized the current knowledge about COVID-19 detection methods aiming to highlight the advantages and disadvantages of molecular and serological methods.

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