Sex-Specific Differences in the Gut Microbiome in Response to Dietary Fiber Supplementation in IL-10-Deficient Mice

There is growing interest in studying dietary fiber to stimulate microbiome changes that might prevent or alleviate inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). However, dietary fiber effects have shown varying degrees of efficacy, for reasons that are unclear. This study examined whether the effects of isomaltodextrin on gut microbiota and IBD were dependent on dose or host sex, using an Interleukin (IL)-10 deficient murine colitis model. After 12 weeks, colonic IL-12p70 was depressed in male mice receiving high-dose isomaltodextrin supplementation compared to the control group (p = 0.04). Male mice receiving high-dose isomaltodextrin exhibited changes in microbial alpha-diversity, including enhanced richness and evenness (p = 0.01) and limited reduction in the relative abundance of Coprococcus (q = 0.08), compared to the control group. These microbial compositional changes were negatively associated with IL-12p70 levels in the male group (rs ≤ −0.51, q ≤ 0.08). In contrast, female mice receiving isomaltodextrin displayed a reduction in alpha-diversity and Coprococcus abundance and a high level of IL-12p70, as did the control group. Together, these results indicate that isomaltodextrin altered the gut microbial composition linking specific immune-regulatory cytokine responses, while the interactions among fiber, microbiota and immune response were dose dependent and largely sex specific. The results further indicate that interactions between environmental and host factors can affect microbiome manipulation in the host.

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Evaluation of Anti-diabetic Effects of Eryngium Billardieri on Streptozotocin-induced Diabetes in Male Mice

10.21203/rs.3.rs-561153/v1 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Kamran Hosseini ◽

Elaheh Touri ◽

Haleh Vaez ◽

Alireza Garjani ◽

Parina Asgharian ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Insulin Secretion ◽

Glucose Tolerance ◽

Beta Cells ◽

Pancreatic Beta Cells ◽

Serum Insulin ◽

Control Group ◽

High Dose ◽

Male Mice ◽

Serum Samples ◽

Streptozotocin Induced Diabetes

Abstract Background: One of the largest plant genera of the Umbelliferae family is Eryngium including 274 species, of which only 9 species are native to Iran and one of the most dominant species is E. billardieri. Numerous pharmacological effects of E. billardieri such as anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant have been reported in several studies. Objective: The present study aimed to investigate the anti-diabetic effects of E. billardieri on streptozotocin-induced diabetes in male mice.Methods: The extraction was performed by maceration with 70% ethanol solvent. Forty eight mice, weighing 32 g, were randomly divided into 8 groups (6 mice per group): healthy control, diabetic control (151 mg/kg STZ; IP), healthy extract control group (receiving the high dose of the extract orally), diabetic groups (receiving low dose and high dose of extract in the form of IP and Oral), the treatment group which received STZ (IP) and high dose of the extract group (Oral) for five days. To induce diabetes, a single dose of STZ (151 mg/kg) was injected intra-peritoneally. After diabetes, 100 mg/kg and 300 mg/kg of extract were injected into diabetic animals for 18 days as IP and Oral were given, and finally, serum samples were isolated and stored at -71 °C. Three days before surgery, OGTT test was performed.Results: IP injection of 300 mg/kg of hydroalcoholic extract of E. billardieri reduced the weight of diabetic rats and significantly reduced glucose tolerance. Furthermore, gavage at a dose of 300 mg/kg of extract caused significantly the increase in serum insulin while the decrease in blood sugar, glucose tolerance and malondialdehyde. Conclusion: E. billardieri extract, due to its components, probably increases serum insulin and decreases serum malondialdehyde by two mechanisms including protects pancreatic beta cells from further damage by streptozotocin and stimulation of insulin secretion from the remaining healthy pancreatic beta cells. In other words, part of the beneficial effects of the extract is associated with inhibition of oxidative stress and increased insulin secretion.

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DIETARY FIBER GUAR GUM EXACERBATES COLONIC INFLAMMATION IN MULTIPLE EXPERIMENTAL MODELS OF INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE

Inflammatory Bowel Diseases ◽

10.1093/ibd/izaa347.004 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 27 (Supplement_1) ◽

pp. S2-S3

Author(s):

Divek V T Nair ◽

Devendra Paudel ◽

Margherita Cantorna ◽

Vishal Singh

Keyword(s):

Inflammatory Bowel Disease ◽

Dietary Fiber ◽

Bowel Disease ◽

Guar Gum ◽

Control Group ◽

Colonic Inflammation ◽

Epithelial Injury ◽

Amyloid A ◽

Wide Range ◽

Inflammatory Bowel

Abstract The role of fermentable dietary fibers in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is not understood. Herein, we elucidated the effect of dietary fiber guar gum, commonly added to a wide range of processed foods, on colonic inflammation. The use of three different IBD models allowed us to examine the effect of guar gum on various aspects of human IBD, such as immune hyperactivity [IL-10 receptor (IL-10R) neutralization], epithelial injury [dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)], and infection [Citrobacter rodentium (CR)]-mediated inflammation. Wild-type (WT, C57BL/6) mice fed either control cellulose (insoluble fiber, aka non-fermentable fiber) or guar gum (soluble fiber, aka fermentable fiber, 7.5% w/w) were administered four weekly injections of IL-10R neutralizing antibody (α-IL-10R) to induce immune-hyperactivation mediated chronic colitis. Guar gum treated mice developed robust α-IL-10R mediated colitis. Guar gum fed mice had splenomegaly, colomegaly, elevated systemic proinflammatory markers [serum amyloid A (SAA), lipocalin 2 (Lcn2) and keratinocyte-derived chemokine (KC)] and elevated colonic Lcn2 and interleukin (IL)-1β, and histopathology scores compared to control, cellulose-fed, mice. Similar results were observed in Toll-like receptor 5 deficient mice, which are prone to develop microbiota-dependent colitis. Next, to examine the effect of guar gum on the epithelial injury model, mice were treated with DSS (1.4% w/v in drinking water) for seven days. The guar gum fed group developed severe colitis, including reduced body weight, diarrhea, rectal bleeding, shortening of colon length, and elevated levels of pro-inflammatory markers (Lcn2, KC, and SAA)compared to the control group. The last model to be tested was infection-induced colitis. Since inflammation is required to clear the infection, we hypothesized that guar gum fed mice might clear CR infection better than controls. To our surprise, guar gum fed WT mice shed higher numbers of CR in the feces than the cellulose group. The guar gum fed mice had lower body weights, colomegaly, an elevated level of colonic and serum Lcn2, and higher serum SAA than the control group. Collectively, guar gum failed to protect against CR-induced colonic pathology. Altogether, the work demonstrates that guar gum feeding may exacerbate colonic inflammation following immune-hyperactivation, chemical, and infectious injury. Cautioning IBD patients to monitor their consumption of guar gum fiber might be a way to reduce the severity of intestinal inflammation.

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Distinctive Gut Microbiota Alteration Is Associated with Poststroke Functional Recovery: Results from a Prospective Cohort Study

Neural Plasticity ◽

10.1155/2021/1469339 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 2021 ◽

pp. 1-16

Author(s):

Yini Dang ◽

Xintong Zhang ◽

Yu Zheng ◽

Binbin Yu ◽

Dijia Pan ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Gut Microbiota ◽

Target Selection ◽

Alpha Diversity ◽

Illumina Miseq ◽

Diversity Indices ◽

Control Group ◽

Characteristic Analysis ◽

Microbial Composition ◽

16S Rna ◽

Miseq Platform

Objectives. Functional prognosis is potentially correlated with gut microbiota alterations following the dysregulation of the gut-microbiota-brain axis after stroke. This study was designed to explore the poststroke alterations of gut microbiota and potential correlations between gut microbiota and global functions. Methods. A total of thirty-eight patients with stroke and thirty-five healthy demographics-matched controls were recruited. Their fecal DNAs were extracted, and the V3-V4 regions of the conserved bacterial 16S RNA were amplified and sequenced on the Illumina MiSeq platform. Microbial composition, diversity indices, and species cooccurrence were compared between groups. Random forest and receiver operating characteristic analysis were used to identify potential diagnostic biomarkers. Relationships between discriminant bacteria and poststroke functional outcomes were estimated. Results. Higher alpha diversity of gut microbiota was observed in poststroke patients as compared to the healthy controls ( p < 0.05 ). Beta diversity showed that microbiota composition in the poststroke group was significantly different from that in the control group. Relative abundance of nine genera increased significantly in poststroke patients, while 82 genera significantly decreased ( p < 0.05 ). The accuracy, specificity, and susceptibility of the optimal model consisted of the top 10 discriminant species were 93%, 100%, and 86%, respectively. Subgroup analysis showed that bacterial taxa abundant between subacute and chronic stroke patients were overall different ( p < 0.05 ). The modified Rankin scale (mRS) ( r = − 0.370 , p < 0.05 ), Fugl-Meyer assessment (FMA) score ( r = 0.364 , p < 0.05 ), water swallow test (WST) ( r = 0.340 , p < 0.05 ), and Barthel index (BI) ( r = 0.349 , p < 0.05 ) were significantly associated with alterations of distinctive gut microbiota. Conclusions. The gut microbiota in patients with stroke was significantly changed in terms of richness and composition. Significant associations were detected between alterations of distinctive gut microbiota and global functional prognosis. It would facilitate novel treatment target selection in the context of stroke while the causal relationships between distinctive gut microbiota alterations and functional variations need to be further verified with well-designed studies.

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COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF DIFFERENT DOSES OF VINPOCETINE ALONE AND IN COMBINATION WITH SULFASALAZINE IN EXPERIMENTALLY INDUCED INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE IN RATS

Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research ◽

10.22159/ajpcr.2017.v10s4.21343 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 10 (16) ◽

pp. 88

Author(s):

Nishtha Datt ◽

Rakesh Raman Patyar ◽

Sazal Patyar

Keyword(s):

Inflammatory Bowel Disease ◽

Acetic Acid ◽

Bowel Disease ◽

Acetic Acid Solution ◽

Control Group ◽

High Dose ◽

Standard Drug ◽

Reference Drug ◽

Group I ◽

Inflammatory Bowel

Objective: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a disorder characterized by chronic inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract and its exact etiopathology is still unclear. Most of the currently available drugs provide the symptomatic improvement, and their long-term use can lead to various unwanted effects also. This study was done to observe the effects of vinpocetine alone and in combination with sulfasalazine on IBD in rats.Methods: Adult Wistar rats of either sex were used (n=36). Experimental colitis was produced by intracolonic administration of acetic acid (10% v/v, 0.20 ml/rat) given per rectally. Rats were divided into six groups (n=6): Group I - normal control (0.9% w/v saline, intracolonic administration + 0.5% w/v carboxymethyl cellulose, i.e., CMC, p.o); Group II - acetic acid (10% v/v, intracolonic administration+0.5% w/v CMC, p.o); Group IIIA - acetic acid + vinpocetine (5 mg/kg, p.o); Group IIIB - acetic acid + vinpocetine (10 mg/kg, p.o); Group IV - acetic acid + sulfasalazine (360 mg/kg, p.o.); Group V - acetic acid + sulfasalazine + vinpocetine (360 mg/kg, p.o. + 5 mg/kg, p.o). The study period was of 15 days in which animals were treated with acetic acid solution on day 1 and treatment was started 4 hrs after the administration of acetic acid till the 14th day. On 15th day, the animals were sacrificed for the investigation of various macroscopic, microscopic, and biochemical parameters.Results: The higher dose of orally administered vinpocetine (10 mg/kg) and combination of sulfasalazine + vinpocetine (360 mg/kg + 5 mg/kg) were found to be the most effective in reducing the severity of mucosal damage which was similar to the reference drug sulfasalazine (360 mg/kg). Both the doses of vinpocetine curtailed the histopathological scores. The combination therapy of sulfasalazine + vinpocetine (360 mg/kg + 5 mg/kg) was equally effective to standard drug but not found to be the most effective treatment. Myeloperoxidase levels were significantly reduced in vinpocetine treated groups as compared to acetic acid control group, while the glutathione levels were increased significantly. Similarly, vinpocetine significantly decreased the malondialdehyde level in the intestinal tissue of the rats with acetic acid induced colitis, and thus the severity of the tissue damage.Conclusion: The results of this study indicated that vinpocetine possesses anti-inflammatory activity and are therapeutically effective in acetic acid induced ulcerative colitis at a dose of 5 mg/kg. More pronounced effects were observed at higher dose, i.e., 10 mg/kg. The combination of sulfasalzine + vinpocetine was also found to be effective as compared to high dose of vinpocetine (10 mg/kg).

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Association between the Distal Gut Microbiome and Anxiety in Highly Active Individuals

10.21203/rs.3.rs-26541/v1 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Elisa Morales Marroquin ◽

Emma Fletcher ◽

Paul Hwang ◽

Caelin S. Kim ◽

Noah Padgett ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Physical Activity ◽

Dietary Fiber ◽

Gut Microbiome ◽

Beta Diversity ◽

Alpha Diversity ◽

Anxiety And Depression ◽

Fiber Intake ◽

Microbial Composition ◽

Highly Active ◽

Dietary Fiber Intake

Abstract Background: Traditional thinking is that physical activity benefits mental and physical health, however, excessive physical activity can increase anxiety, depression, and affect the gut microbiome. Considering the strong connection between the gut and the brain, the purpose of the present study was to evaluate the association between gut microbiota composition and anxiety as well as depression in highly active individuals. Methods: Participants included 55 young adults (ages 18-25, 51% males). All participants were highly physically active, as determined by 7 days of SenseWear monitoring. Anxiety and depression were measured with the Beck Anxiety and Depression Inventories. Alpha diversity, beta diversity, and microbial composition were evaluated via 16S rRNA gene sequencing using distal gut samples. Results: Greater anxiety was associated with both lower distal gut alpha diversity ( P < 0.05) and higher beta diversity (PERMANOVA test; R-squared: 0.17562, P = 0.027), which appeared stronger in males. Genus level taxonomic abundance analysis showed Prevotella relative abundance as higher in males with higher anxiety ( P = 0.03, q=0.06). However, adjusted linear regression analysis, controlling for fiber intake and sex nullified the association between Prevotella and anxiety. Additional analysis demonstrated a strong association between lower dietary fiber intake and higher anxiety scores (Est.= -0.48, SE= 0.20 , P = 0.021). Conclusion: In highly active individuals, specifically males, there is a strong relationship between the gut microbiome, fiber intake, and anxiety. These data suggest highly active males with anxiety may benefit from increased dietary fiber intake.

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Altered Fecal Microbiota Signatures in Patients With Anxiety and Depression in the Gastrointestinal Cancer Screening: A Case-Control Study

Frontiers in Psychiatry ◽

10.3389/fpsyt.2021.757139 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 12 ◽

Author(s):

Juan Zhu ◽

Minjuan Li ◽

Dantong Shao ◽

Shanrui Ma ◽

Wenqiang Wei

Keyword(s):

Cancer Screening ◽

Gastrointestinal Cancer ◽

Large Scale ◽

Alpha Diversity ◽

Fecal Microbiota ◽

Anxiety And Depression ◽

Control Group ◽

Rrna Gene ◽

Microbial Composition ◽

Depression Group

Background: Increasing attention has been devoted to cancer screening and microbiota in recent decades, but currently there is less focus on microbiota characterization among screeners and its relationship to anxiety and depression.Methods: We characterized the microbial communities of fecal samples collected through the FOBT card from anxiety and depression screeners and paired controls in Henan, China (1:2, N = 69). DNA was extracted using the MOBIO PowerSoil kit. The V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene was sequenced using MiniSeq and processed using QIIME1. LEfSe was used to identify differentially abundant microbes, the Wilcoxon rank-sum test was used to test alpha diversity differences, and permutational multivariate analysis of variance was used to test for differences in beta diversity.Results: Similar fecal microbiota signatures in composition were found among screeners. The intestinal microbial environments by phylum were all composed primarily of Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and Proteobacteria, and the corresponding top genera were Faecalibacterium, Roseburia, and Prevotella. Compared with controls, the ranking of the top five genera in the anxiety and depression group changed, and the dominant genus was Prevotella in the anxiety and depression group and Faecalibacterium in the control group. There was a lower relative abundance of Gemmiger (1.4 vs. 2.3%, P = 0.025), Ruminococcus (0.6 vs. 0.8%, P = 0.037), and Veillonella (0.6 vs. 1.3%, P = 0.020). This may be linked to the lower alpha diversity in participants with anxiety and depression (Observed OTUs: 122.35 vs. 143.24; Chao1: 127.35 vs. 149.98), although no significant differences were observed. Distinct clustering in microbial composition between the two groups was detected for the Jaccard distance (P = 0.011).Conclusions: Our study showed differing microbial characterization among participants with anxiety and depression in the endoscopic screening of upper gastrointestinal cancer. Gemmiger, Ruminococcus, and Veillonella were informative and have potential clinical implications, which need to be confirmed by large-scale, prospective cohort studies and biological mechanism research.

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Effects of Dietary Fiber from Corn Husks on Hyperlipidemia prevention in Trans-fatty Acids fed Mice

E3S Web of Conferences ◽

10.1051/e3sconf/202018504012 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 185 ◽

pp. 04012

Author(s):

Fan Xu ◽

Yazhe Xiao ◽

Mingfei Xu ◽

Jia Liu

Keyword(s):

Fatty Acids ◽

Total Cholesterol ◽

Dietary Fiber ◽

Trans Fatty Acids ◽

Density Lipoprotein ◽

The Body ◽

Serum Total Cholesterol ◽

Control Group ◽

High Dose ◽

Blank Control Group

To evaluate the effects of dietary fiber from corn husks on hyperlipidemia, the hyperlipidemia model of mice was induced by trans-fatty acids diet,and the mice were randomly divided into the blank control group, the high fat control group(TFA group) and the low, middle and high dose group (2.5,5.0,10.0 G / kg) of dietary fiber from corn husks. Except the blank control group, the mice were fed with high fat diet. The body mass, serum total cholesterol, triglyceride, low density lipoprotein(LDL) and high density lipoprotein(HDL) were measured. The intake of trans-fatty acids resulted in a significant increase in the body weight, serum total cholesterol, triglyceride and LDL(P<0.01), HDL level was significantly lower(P<0.01). Corn husks dietary fiber intervention can reduce the body weight of mice, the serum total cholesterol, triglyceride, LDL concentration and increase HDL concentration. The difference between the high-dose group and the TFA group was significant(P<0.01), and the intervention effect was best in the group with high dose of corn husks dietary fiber. Corn husks dietary fiber can effectively reduce blood lipid in hyperlipidemia mode mice.

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The Effect of Endosulfan in GnRH and GtH Genes Expression of Male Hard-Lipped Barb (Osteochilus vittatus C.V.)

Molekul ◽

10.20884/1.jm.2020.15.3.612 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 15 (3) ◽

pp. 166

Author(s):

Asrul Sahri Siregar ◽

Pudji Astuti ◽

Yulia Sistina ◽

Norman Arie Prayogo

Keyword(s):

Gene Expression ◽

Aquatic Organisms ◽

Control Group ◽

Organochlorine Insecticide ◽

High Dose ◽

Agricultural Activities ◽

Chronic Effects ◽

Genes Expression ◽

Medium Level ◽

High Level

The presence of pollutants in water makes the environment toxic to all living biota and affects reproduction in fish. One of such pollutants is endosulfan, which is an off-patent organochlorine insecticide, widely used in various agricultural activities. Endosulfan is extremely toxic to fish and all other aquatic organisms, showing a range of chronic effects, including genotoxicity, and reproductive issues. Therefore, the aim of the research was to find the effect of endosulfan on cGnRH, sGnRH, GtH-I and GtH-II gene expression inmale hard-lipped barb fish. These fish were kept in aquarium containing several levels of endosulfan (0 mg/L [control]; 0.88 mg/L [low level]; 1.76 mg/L [medium level]; and 2.64 mg/L [high] level) for 60 days. The effects of endosulfan on GnRH performance on the fishwere evaluated by the expressions of these genes; cGnRH-II, sGnRH, GtH-I, and GtH-II. In the 8th week, there was a decrease in the expression of all the four genes in fish with high dose of endosulfan compared with the control group (P < 0.05). These findings showedthat endosulfan inhibits the expression of cGnRH, sGnRH, GtH-I and GtH-II genes in male hard-lipped barb.

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Co-exposure to endocrine disruptors: effect of bisphenol A and soy extract on glucose homeostasis and related metabolic disorders in male mice

Endocrine Regulations ◽

10.2478/enr-2018-0009 ◽

2018 ◽

Vol 52 (2) ◽

pp. 76-84 ◽

Cited By ~ 3

Author(s):

Masoud Veissi ◽

Sima Jafarirad ◽

Akram Ahangarpour ◽

Seyede Marjan Mohaghegh ◽

Amal Saki Malehi

Keyword(s):

Bisphenol A ◽

Glucose Homeostasis ◽

Metabolic Disorders ◽

Fasting Blood Glucose ◽

Serum Levels ◽

Control Group ◽

High Dose ◽

Model Assessment ◽

Low Doses ◽

Male Mice

AbstractObjectives. Bisphenol A (BPA) is a xenoestrogen, which is commonly used as a monomer of polycarbonate plastics food containers and epoxy resins. Little is known about the interaction effects between xeno- and phyto- estrogens on glucose homeostasis or other metabolic disorders. The aim of this study was to examine effects of individual or combined exposure to low doses of BPA and soy extract on glucose metabolism in mice with the goal to establish its potential mechanisms.Methods. Fifty-four male mice were randomly divided into six groups. Mice were treated with soy extract at 60 or 150 mg/kg by daily gavage with or without subcutaneously administration of BPA (100 μg/kg/day) for four weeks at the same time, while the control group received a vehicle. Serum levels of fasting glucose, insulin, adiponectin, testosterone, malondialdehyde (MDA), and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) were measured. Homeostatic model assessment-β cell function (HOMA-β) index was also determined.Results. BPA exposure induced hyperglycemia and significantly reduced HOMA-β, serum levels of insulin, adiponectin, testosterone, and TAC and noticeably enhanced MDA in BPA group compared to control one. While treatment with soy extract in high dose (150 mg/kg) significantly decreased the levels of fasting blood glucose and MDA and notably improved the serum levels of insulin, HOMA-β, and TAC compared to BPA group.Conclusion. Soy extract may protect against some adverse effects of BPA. These findings represent the first report suggesting a potential effect between soy extract and BPA in low doses, however, further studies are needed to confirm these results.

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The antinociceptive effects of folic acid using formalin and acetic acid tests in male mice

Journal of Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences ◽

10.34172/jsums.2021.15 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 23 (2) ◽

pp. 93-98

Author(s):

Morteza Hajiallilo ◽

Saeid Abbasi-Maleki

Keyword(s):

Acetic Acid ◽

Folic Acid ◽

Antinociceptive Effect ◽

Control Group ◽

High Dose ◽

Test Duration ◽

Male Mice ◽

Intraplantar Injection ◽

Neurogenic Pain ◽

Antinociceptive Effects

Background and aims: Antidepressant agents such as imipramine are clinically used to control and treat different types of pain, especially neuropathic pain. Studies have shown the antidepressant-like activity of folic acid (FA). This study aimed to investigate the potential antinociceptive effects of FA using formalin and acetic acid tests in male mice. Methods: Sixty male albino mice (20-30 g) were randomly divided into 10 groups (n=6 in each group) of negative control, positive control (morphine or indomethacin), and FA (10, 15, and 30 mg/kg) groups. In the formalin test, duration of paw licking and biting the right hind paw during acute (0-5 minutes) and chronic (15-60 minutes) pain after intraplantar injection of formalin 2.5% (25 µL) was recorded. In the writhing test, the abdominal constrictions were recorded after the intraperitoneal injection of acetic acid 1%. Results: Only a high dose (30 mg/kg) of FA significantly reduced acute pain (P=0.001) compared with the control group. But all doses of FA significantly decreased chronic pain (P=0.001). In addition, morphine significantly reduced both phases of pain (P=0.020 and P=0.001, respectively). Moreover, indomethacin and all doses of FA decreased the number of abdominal constrictions induced by acetic acid (P=0.001). Conclusion: Compared with acute (neurogenic) pain, FA more potently decreases chronic (inflammatory) pain. Furthermore, FA decreases the parietal pain that could potentially represent antinociceptive effect. However, further studies are needed to elucidate the exact mechanism of FA’s analgesic activity.

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