INFECTION-ACQUIRED VERSUS VACCINE-INDUCED IMMUNITY AGAINST COVID-19

The course of COVID-19 depends on a dynamic interplay between SARS-CoV-2 and the host's immune system. Although it is an emerging global health issue, little is known about the specificity, safety, and duration of the immunity elicited by the virus. This hypothesis article explores the benefits of infection-acquired and vaccine-induced immunity against COVID-19, suggesting that the latter outweighs the former. Comparative studies are proposed to explain and reveal all aspects of the immune responses. Although vaccine development relies on studies of naturally acquired immune responses, there are still no comparative analyses of the natural and vaccine immunity against SARS-CoV-2. Moreover, there are scarce reports on the characteristics of both types of responses. The scientific facts about the virulence of SARS-CoV-2 affecting the immune system are of great importance for proposed comparative analyses. Various immunological methods can be employed to elucidate infection-acquired and vaccine-induced immunity against SARS-CoV-2. The safe vaccination of subjects with and without COVID-19 history may disrupt the virus spreading and end the pandemic.

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Dendritic Cells/Macrophages-Targeting Feature of Ebola Glycoprotein and its Potential as Immunological Facilitator for Antiviral Vaccine Approach

Microorganisms ◽

10.3390/microorganisms7100402 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 7 (10) ◽

pp. 402

Author(s):

Titus Abiola Olukitibi ◽

Zhujun Ao ◽

Mona Mahmoudi ◽

Gary A. Kobinger ◽

Xiaojian Yao

Keyword(s):

Dendritic Cells ◽

Immune Responses ◽

Ebola Virus ◽

Vaccine Development ◽

Adaptive Immune Responses ◽

Adaptive Immune ◽

Immunological Approach ◽

Vaccine Approach ◽

Acquired Immune Responses ◽

Diverse Virus

In the prevention of epidemic and pandemic viral infection, the use of the antiviral vaccine has been the most successful biotechnological and biomedical approach. In recent times, vaccine development studies have focused on recruiting and targeting immunogens to dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages to induce innate and adaptive immune responses. Interestingly, Ebola virus (EBOV) glycoprotein (GP) has a strong binding affinity with DCs and macrophages. Shreds of evidence have also shown that the interaction between EBOV GP with DCs and macrophages leads to massive recruitment of DCs and macrophages capable of regulating innate and adaptive immune responses. Therefore, studies for the development of vaccine can utilize the affinity between EBOV GP and DCs/macrophages as a novel immunological approach to induce both innate and acquired immune responses. In this review, we will discuss the unique features of EBOV GP to target the DC, and its potential to elicit strong immune responses while targeting DCs/macrophages. This review hopes to suggest and stimulate thoughts of developing a stronger and effective DC-targeting vaccine for diverse virus infection using EBOV GP.

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An overview of sex hormones in relation to SARS-CoV-2 infection

Future Virology ◽

10.2217/fvl-2021-0058 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Marzieh Saei Ghare Naz ◽

Mojdeh Banaei ◽

Sareh Dashti ◽

Fahimeh Ramezani Tehrani

Keyword(s):

Sex Differences ◽

Immune System ◽

Literature Review ◽

Immune Responses ◽

Sex Hormones ◽

Web Of Science ◽

Vaccine Development ◽

Response To Treatment ◽

Different Seasons ◽

Body Response

Aim: Sex differences in COVID-19 outcomes might be explained from a sex hormones (SexHs) perspective. Materials & methods: PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, EMBASE and Google Scholar were searched up to March 2021. Results: Based on the literature review, the crosstalk between SexHs (estrogens, progesterone and testosterone), their receptors (estrogen α and β, androgen, and progesterone) and the immune system shaped the sex-related differences in immune responses against COVID-19. Differential production of SexHs over the lifespan (during pregnancy, reproductive years, menopause and andropause) and over different seasons may result in disparities in body response toward COVID-19. Moreover, SexHs-specific differences might affect vaccine efficacy and response to treatment. Conclusion: The roles of SexHs need to be considered in vaccine development and even treatment of COVID-19.

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The Immune Response toTrypanosoma cruzi: Role of Toll-Like Receptors and Perspectives for Vaccine Development

Journal of Parasitology Research ◽

10.1155/2012/507874 ◽

2012 ◽

Vol 2012 ◽

pp. 1-12 ◽

Cited By ~ 47

Author(s):

Mauricio M. Rodrigues ◽

Ana Carolina Oliveira ◽

Maria Bellio

Keyword(s):

Immune Response ◽

Immune Responses ◽

Vaccine Development ◽

State Of The Art ◽

Toll Like Receptor ◽

Vaccine Research ◽

The Past ◽

Acquired Immune Responses ◽

Molecular Patterns

In the past ten years, studies have shown the recognition ofTrypanosoma cruzi-associated molecular patterns by members of the Toll-like receptor (TLR) family and demonstrated the crucial participation of different TLRs during the experimental infection with this parasite. In the present review, we will focus on the role of TLR-activated pathways in the modulation of both innate and acquired immune responses toT. cruziinfection, as well as discuss the state of the art of vaccine research and development against the causative agent of Chagas disease (or American trypanosomiasis).

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Early Life Vaccination of Companion Animal Pets

Vaccines ◽

10.3390/vaccines9020092 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 9 (2) ◽

pp. 92

Author(s):

W. Jean Dodds

Keyword(s):

Immune System ◽

Immune Responses ◽

Early Life ◽

Animal Species ◽

Companion Animals ◽

Parasite Control ◽

Vaccination Policy ◽

Novel Foods ◽

Size Type ◽

Acquired Immune Responses

Development of the immune system of mammalian animal species parallels that of humans and involves the innate and adaptive (acquired) immune responses acting together with the thymus gland. Consequently, issues surrounding the adequacy and safety of vaccinations to protect pet animals from their relevant infectious diseases need to be addressed just as they are for humans. Pet animals, especially canines, also have unique needs because of the wide diversity of purebred and mixed breeds that vary greatly in size, type, temperament, and even maturation rates. Furthermore, pets in early life encounter a series of changes that can affect their development and induce stressors including parasite control, new homes and environment, novel foods, and the socialization that is essential at a time when vaccinations need to be given. While recognizing that this overall need is becoming more understood, current vaccination policy guidelines for companion animals are still only adhered to by about 40% of veterinarians worldwide. Clearly, vaccination of pets should no longer be considered as “one size fits all”.

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The way of SARS-CoV-2 vaccine development: success and challenges

Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy ◽

10.1038/s41392-021-00796-w ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 6 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Yetian Dong ◽

Tong Dai ◽

Bin Wang ◽

Lei Zhang ◽

Ling-hui Zeng ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome ◽

Immune Responses ◽

Vaccine Development ◽

Natural Infection ◽

Wild Type ◽

Mutational Hotspots ◽

Long Term Changes ◽

Induced Immunity ◽

Shed Light

AbstractSevere acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative agent of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). To halt the pandemic, multiple SARS-CoV-2 vaccines have been developed and several have been allowed for emergency use and rollout worldwide. With novel SARS-CoV-2 variants emerging and circulating widely, whether the original vaccines that were designed based on the wild-type SARS-CoV-2 were effective against these variants has been a contentious discussion. Moreover, some studies revealed the long-term changes of immune responses post SARS-CoV-2 infection or vaccination and the factors that might impact the vaccine-induced immunity. Thus, in this review, we have summarized the influence of mutational hotspots on the vaccine efficacy and characteristics of variants of interest and concern. We have also discussed the reasons that might result in discrepancies in the efficacy of different vaccines estimated in different trials. Furthermore, we provided an overview of the duration of immune responses after natural infection or vaccination and shed light on the factors that may affect the immunity induced by the vaccines, such as special disease conditions, sex, and pre-existing immunity, with the aim of aiding in combating COVID-19 and distributing SARS-CoV-2 vaccines under the prevalence of diverse SARS-CoV-2 variants.

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Thinking Globally, Acting Locally: Harnessing the Immune System to Deal with Recalcitrant Pathogens

mBio ◽

10.1128/mbio.00382-15 ◽

2015 ◽

Vol 6 (3) ◽

Cited By ~ 4

Author(s):

Michael W. Russell

Keyword(s):

Immune System ◽

Immune Responses ◽

Vaccine Development ◽

Host Immunity ◽

Parasitic Infections ◽

Bacterial Disease ◽

Host Immune Responses ◽

Limited Effectiveness ◽

Traditional Approaches ◽

Emergence Of Resistance

ABSTRACT Traditional approaches to harnessing the immune system to confront infectious diseases depend on vaccines, which have generally proven highly effective, but for many infections these either are not available or are of limited effectiveness. Although antibiotic therapy has been extremely successful in reducing the burden of bacterial disease, the emergence of resistance among several important pathogens threatens to undermine this accomplishment, and despite some successes chemotherapeutic treatments for viral, fungal, and parasitic infections are more limited. Understanding the mechanisms whereby pathogens manipulate the immune system to favor their survival, or exploit weaknesses in host immunity, can lead to novel approaches for the treatment of infections by redirecting host immune responses against the pathogen. Such treatments may be most effectively applied at the mucosal locations which are frequently the sites of initial infection and may also suggest new approaches for vaccine development.

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Nutritional Recommendation for COVID-19

International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical Sciences ◽

10.26452/ijrps.v11ispl1.3078 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 11 (SPL1) ◽

pp. 753-757

Author(s):

Anagha Gulhane ◽

Shamli Hiware

Keyword(s):

Immune System ◽

Global Health ◽

Infectious Diseases ◽

Immune Function ◽

The Body ◽

Health Issue ◽

System Quality ◽

Life Phase ◽

Global Health Issue ◽

Nutritional Recommendation

It is the most unreliable truth that anybody can get infected by the COVID-19, and nobody can escape from the danger of getting tainted by the virus. Yet, the line of hope is that anyone and everyone can boost their resistance, thus avoid the risk of getting affected by the illness. The immunity of humans pulls down as they grow older. If their immune system is robust, them falling sick is feeble. If their resistance is weak, them getting ill is sound. Several factors affect the immune system and its ability, including its nourishment. A two-way connection between nutrition, infection and immunity presents. Changes in one part will affect the others part in our body that's the nature's rule. Well defined immune system quality which is present between each life phase may influence the type, generality and the degree of infections. At the same time, low nutrition to the body will decrease the immune function and expose the body to the danger of getting infected by infectious diseases. Different quantity of micronutrients is required for increasing the immunity power of our body. Generally the vitamins A,C,D,E,B2,B6,B12, iron, zinc and selenium.The deficiencies of micronutrients are acknowledged as a global health issue, and also low nutrition makes it prone to establishes the infections in the body.

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Principles and Challenges in anti-COVID-19 Vaccine Development

International Archives of Allergy and Immunology ◽

10.1159/000514225 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 1-11

Author(s):

Zuzana Strizova ◽

Jitka Smetanova ◽

Jirina Bartunkova ◽

Tomas Milota

Keyword(s):

Clinical Trials ◽

Immune Responses ◽

Vaccine Development ◽

Viral Vector ◽

Health It ◽

Therapeutic Approaches ◽

Clinical Phase ◽

Adaptive Immune ◽

Limited Efficacy ◽

Safe Vaccine

The number of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-infected patients keeps rising in most of the European countries despite the pandemic precaution measures. The current antiviral and anti-inflammatory therapeutic approaches are only supportive, have limited efficacy, and the prevention in reducing the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 virus is the best hope for public health. It is presumed that an effective vaccination against SARS-CoV-2 infection could mobilize the innate and adaptive immune responses and provide a protection against severe forms of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) disease. As the race for the effective and safe vaccine has begun, different strategies were introduced. To date, viral vector-based vaccines, genetic vaccines, attenuated vaccines, and protein-based vaccines are the major vaccine types tested in the clinical trials. Over 80 clinical trials have been initiated; however, only 18 vaccines have reached the clinical phase II/III or III, and 4 vaccine candidates are under consideration or have been approved for the use so far. In addition, the protective effect of the off-target vaccines, such as <i>Bacillus</i> Calmette-Guérin and measles vaccine, is being explored in randomized prospective clinical trials with SARS-CoV-2-infected patients. In this review, we discuss the most promising anti-COVID-19 vaccine clinical trials and different vaccination strategies in order to provide more clarity into the ongoing clinical trials.

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The immune response of T cells and therapeutic targets related to regulating the levels of T helper cells after ischaemic stroke

Journal of Neuroinflammation ◽

10.1186/s12974-020-02057-z ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 18 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Tian-Yu Lei ◽

Ying-Ze Ye ◽

Xi-Qun Zhu ◽

Daniel Smerin ◽

Li-Juan Gu ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Immune Response ◽

T Cells ◽

Immune System ◽

Immune Responses ◽

Ischaemic Stroke ◽

Immune Cells ◽

Tissue Injury ◽

Recovery Period ◽

Vital Functions ◽

Anti Inflammatory

AbstractThrough considerable effort in research and clinical studies, the immune system has been identified as a participant in the onset and progression of brain injury after ischaemic stroke. Due to the involvement of all types of immune cells, the roles of the immune system in stroke pathology and associated effects are complicated. Past research concentrated on the functions of monocytes and neutrophils in the pathogenesis of ischaemic stroke and tried to demonstrate the mechanisms of tissue injury and protection involving these immune cells. Within the past several years, an increasing number of studies have elucidated the vital functions of T cells in the innate and adaptive immune responses in both the acute and chronic phases of ischaemic stroke. Recently, the phenotypes of T cells with proinflammatory or anti-inflammatory function have been demonstrated in detail. T cells with distinctive phenotypes can also influence cerebral inflammation through various pathways, such as regulating the immune response, interacting with brain-resident immune cells and modulating neurogenesis and angiogenesis during different phases following stroke. In view of the limited treatment options available following stroke other than tissue plasminogen activator therapy, understanding the function of immune responses, especially T cell responses, in the post-stroke recovery period can provide a new therapeutic direction. Here, we discuss the different functions and temporal evolution of T cells with different phenotypes during the acute and chronic phases of ischaemic stroke. We suggest that modulating the balance between the proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory functions of T cells with distinct phenotypes may become a potential therapeutic approach that reduces the mortality and improves the functional outcomes and prognosis of patients suffering from ischaemic stroke.

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Mathematical Interpretation of the Pharmacodynamics of Homoeopathic Medicines

Homœopathic Links ◽

10.1055/s-0040-1717132 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 34 (01) ◽

pp. 003-016

Author(s):

John Michel Warner

Keyword(s):

Immune System ◽

Immune Responses ◽

Dose Response ◽

Oral Route ◽

Response Relationship ◽

Dose Response Relationship ◽

Force Line ◽

Administration Routes ◽

Medicinal Substances ◽

Medicine Administration

AbstractAccording to Hahnemann, homoeopathic medicines must be great immune responses inducers. In crude states, these medicines pose severe threats to the immune system. So, the immune-system of an organism backfires against the molecules of the medicinal substances. The complex immune response mechanism activated by the medicinal molecules can handle any threats which are similar to the threats posed by the medicinal molecules. The intersectional operation of the two sets, medicine-induced immune responses and immune responses necessary to cure diseases, shows that any effective homoeopathic medicine, which is effective against any disease, can induce immune responses which are necessary to cure the specific disease. In this article, this mechanism has been exemplified by the action of Silicea in human body. Also, a neuroimmunological assessment of the route of medicine administration shows that the oral cavity and the nasal cavity are two administration-routes where the smallest doses (sometimes even few molecules) of a particular homoeopathic medicine induce the most effective and sufficient (in amount) purgatory immune responses. Administering the smallest unitary doses of Silicea in the oral route can make significant changes in the vital force line on the dose–response relationship graph. The dose–response relationship graph further implicates that the most effective dose of a medicine must be below the lethality threshold. If multiple doses of any medicine are administered at same intervals, the immune-system primarily engages with the medicinal molecules; but along the passage of time, the engagement line splits into two: one engages with the medicinal molecules and another engages with diseases. The immune system's engagement with the diseases increases along the passage of time, though the engagement with the medicinal molecules gradually falls with the administration of descending doses. Necessarily, I have shown through mathematical logic that the descending doses, though they seem to be funny, can effectively induce the most effective immune responses.

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