To what extent does the environmental magnetism technique acts as a way of assessing the uptake of atmospheric particles by plants?

Numerous studies have already shown the possibility of tracing the sources, the compositions, and the concentration of atmospheric pollutants deposited on plant leaves. In environmental geochemistry, inter-element and isotope ratios from chemical element assays have been used for these purposes. Alternatively, environmental magnetism represents a quick and inexpensive asset that is increasingly used as a relative indicator for concentrations of air pollutant on bio accumulator surfaces such as plants. However, a fundamental issue is still pending: Do plants in urban areas represent a sink for fine particles that is sufficiently effective to improve air quality? This is a very topical issue because some studies have shown that the foliage can trap fine particles by different dry deposition processes, while other studies based on CFD models indicate that plant hedges in cities can hinder the atmospheric dispersion of pollutants and therefore increase pollution at the level of emission sources such as traffic. To date, no consensus was made because several factors not necessary well known must be taken into account, such as, PM concentration and size, prevailing wind, surface structures, epicuticular wax, to mention just a few examples. A first step toward the understanding of the impact of urban greens on air quality is the precise determination of the deposition velocity (Vd) parameter. This latter is specific for each species and it is most of the time underestimated in modeling-based studies by taking standard values. In that perspective, we built a wind tunnel (6 m long, 86 cm wide and 86 cm high) to perform analogical experiments on different endemic species. All parameters are controlled, i.e, the wind speed, the nature and the injection time of pollutants (Gasoline or Diesel exhausts, brakes or tires dust, etc&#8230;). We can provide the PM concentrations upwind and downwind of natural reconstituted hedges by two dustmeters (LOACs - M&#233;t&#233;oModem). Beforehand, parameters such as the hedge resistance (%) or the leaf area index (LAI) have been estimated for each studied specie to allow comparability between plants removal potential. The interest would ultimately combine PM concentration measured by size bins from the LOACs with magnetic measurements (ARM, IRM100mT, IRM300mT and SIRM) of plant leaves. The idea is to check whether it would be possible to precisely determine in situ the dust removal rate by urban greens with environmental magnetism measurements. Up to now, we have carried out on different endemic species such as Elaeagnus x ebbingei leaves and Mediterranean pine needles, the results of which will be presented.

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Gender Differences in Association between Air Pollution and Daily Mortality in the Capital of the Green Lungs of Poland–Population-Based Study with 2,953,000 Person-Years of Follow-Up

Journal of Clinical Medicine ◽

10.3390/jcm9082351 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 9 (8) ◽

pp. 2351

Author(s):

Łukasz Kuźma ◽

Krzysztof Struniawski ◽

Szymon Pogorzelski ◽

Hanna Bachórzewska-Gajewska ◽

Sławomir Dobrzycki

Keyword(s):

Public Health ◽

Gender Differences ◽

Air Pollution ◽

Air Quality ◽

Air Pollutant ◽

World Health ◽

The European Union ◽

Daily Mortality ◽

Male Population ◽

The Impact

(1) Introduction: air pollution is considered to be one of the main risk factors for public health. According to the European Environment Agency (EEA), air pollution contributes to the premature deaths of approximately 500,000 citizens of the European Union (EU), including almost 5000 inhabitants of Poland every year. (2) Purpose: to assess the gender differences in the impact of air pollution on the mortality in the population of the city of Bialystok—the capital of the Green Lungs of Poland. (3) Materials and Methods: based on the data from the Central Statistical Office, the number—and causes of death—of Białystok residents in the period 2008–2017 were analyzed. The study utilized the data recorded by the Provincial Inspectorate for Environmental Protection station and the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management during the analysis period. Time series regression with Poisson distribution was used in statistical analysis. (4) Results: A total of 34,005 deaths had been recorded, in which women accounted for 47.5%. The proportion of cardiovascular-related deaths was 48% (n = 16,370). An increase of SO2 concentration by 1-µg/m3 (relative risk (RR) 1.07, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.02–1.12; p = 0.005) and a 10 °C decrease of temperature (RR 1.03, 95% CI 1.01–1.05; p = 0.005) were related to an increase in the number of daily deaths. No gender differences in the impact of air pollution on mortality were observed. In the analysis of the subgroup of cardiovascular deaths, the main pollutant that was found to have an effect on daily mortality was particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 μm or less (PM2.5); the RR for 10-µg/m3 increase of PM2.5 was 1.07 (95% CI 1.02–1.12; p = 0.01), and this effect was noted only in the male population. (5) Conclusions: air quality and atmospheric conditions had an impact on the mortality of Bialystok residents. The main air pollutant that influenced the mortality rate was SO2, and there were no gender differences in the impact of this pollutant. In the male population, an increased exposure to PM2.5 concentration was associated with significantly higher cardiovascular mortality. These findings suggest that improving air quality, in particular, even with lower SO2 levels than currently allowed by the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines, may benefit public health. Further studies on this topic are needed, but our results bring questions whether the recommendations concerning acceptable concentrations of air pollutants should be stricter, or is there a safe concentration of SO2 in the air at all.

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Avoided Mortality Associated with Improved Air Quality from an Increase in Renewable Energy in the Spanish Transport Sector: Use of Biofuels and the Adoption of the Electric Car

Atmosphere ◽

10.3390/atmos12121603 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 12 (12) ◽

pp. 1603

Author(s):

Ana R. Gamarra ◽

Yolanda Lechón ◽

Marta G. Vivanco ◽

Mark Richard Theobald ◽

Carmen Lago ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Air Quality ◽

Health Impact ◽

Air Pollutant ◽

Transport Sector ◽

Population Exposure ◽

Baseline Scenario ◽

Premature Deaths ◽

Electric Car ◽

The Impact

This paper assesses the health impact, in terms of the reduction of premature deaths associated with changes in air pollutant exposure, resulting from double-aim strategies for reducing emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants from the transport sector for the year 2030 in Spain. The impact on air quality of selected measures for reducing emissions from the transport sector (increased penetration of biofuel and electric car use) was assessed by air quality modeling. The estimation of population exposure to NO2, particulate matter (PM) and O3 allows for estimation of associated mortality and external costs in comparison with the baseline scenario with no measures. The results show that the penetration of the electric vehicle provided the largest benefits, even when the emissions due to the additional electricity demand were considered.

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FRI0531 AIR POLLUTANTS AND DEVELOPMENT OF INTERSTITIAL LUNG DISEASE IN PATIENTS WITH AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES

Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases ◽

10.1136/annrheumdis-2020-eular.204 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 79 (Suppl 1) ◽

pp. 865.1-865

Author(s):

H. H. Chen ◽

W. C. Chao ◽

Y. H. Chen ◽

D. Y. Chen ◽

C. H. Lin

Keyword(s):

Air Quality ◽

Autoimmune Diseases ◽

Air Pollutants ◽

Air Pollutant ◽

Air Quality Monitoring ◽

Newly Diagnosed ◽

Science Technology ◽

Air Quality Monitoring Stations ◽

The Impact ◽

Modest Level

Background:Interstitial lung disease (ILD) is characterized by progressive inflammation and fibrosis, and accumulating evidence have shown that exposure to air pollutants was associated with the development of ILD. Autoimmune diseases are highly correlated with ILD, including connective tissue disease-associated ILD (CTD-ILD) as well as interstitial pneumonia with autoimmune features (IPAF), and the development of ILD is a crucial cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with autoimmune diseases. One recent Taiwanese study reported that exposure to air pollutants was associated with incident systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). However, the impact of air pollutants on the development of ILD among patients with autoimmune diseases remains unknown.Objectives:The study aimed to address the impact of accumulating exposure to air pollutant above moderate level, defined by Air Quality Index (AQI) value higher than 50, on the development of ILD in patients with autoimmune diseases including SLE, rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and primary Sjögren’s syndrome (SS).Methods:We used a National Health Insurance Research Database in Taiwan to enroll patients with SLE (International Classification of Diseases (ICD)-9 code 710.0, n=13,211), RA (ICD-9 code 714.0 and 714.30–714.33, n=32,373), and primary SS (ICD-9 code, 710.0, n=15,246) between 2001 and 2013. We identified newly diagnosed ILD cases (ICD-code 515) between 2012 and 2013 and selected age, sex, disease duration and index-year matched (1:4) patients as non-ILD controls. The hourly levels of air pollutants one year prior to the index-date were obtained from 60 air quality monitoring stations across Taiwan, and the air pollutants in the present study consisted of particulate matter <2.5 μm in size (PM2.5), particulate matter <10 μm in size (PM10), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2) and ozone (O3). We used a spatio-temporal model built by a deep-learning mechanism to estimate levels of air pollutants at 374 residential locations based on data of 3 air quality monitoring stations near the location (8). Notably, we used cumulative exposed hours to air pollutants higher than modest level, defined by AQI criteria, given that daily mean level of air pollutants might possibly underestimate the triggered inflammatory effect by a temporary exposure of high-level air pollutant. A conditional logistic regression was used to determine the association between exposure to air pollutant and the development of ILD, adjusting age, gender, Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI), urbanization, family income, and medications for autoimmune diseases.Results:A total of 272 patients with newly diagnosed ILD were identified among patients with autoimmune diseases, including 39 with SLE, 135 with RA, and 98 with primary SS. We found that the duration of exposure to PM 2.5 higher than modest level was associated with the risk of ILD development in patients with SS (adjOR 1.07, 95% CI 1.01–1.13), and similar trends were also found in patients with SLE (adjOR 1.03, 95% CI 0.95–1.12) and RA (adjOR 1.03, 95% CI 0.99–1.07). Intriguingly, we observed an inverse correlation between the duration of exposure to O3 and the development of ILD in patients with SS (adjOR 0.83, 95% CI 0.70–0.99); however, the finding was not found in patients with SLE (adjOR 1.13, 95% CI 0.92–1.37) and RA (adjOR 0.98, 95% CI 0.87–1.11).Conclusion:In conclusion, we identified that longer exposure to PM2.5 higher than modest level tended to be associated with the development of ILD in patients with autoimmune diseases, mainly SS.References:[1] Araki T, Putman RK, Hatabu H, Gao W, Dupuis J, Latourelle JC, et al. Development and Progression of Interstitial Lung Abnormalities in the Framingham Heart Study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2016;194:1514-1522.[2] Tang KT, Tsuang BJ, Ku KC, Chen YH, Lin CH, Chen DY. Relationship between exposure to air pollutants and development of systemic autoimmune rheumatic diseases: a nationwide population-based case-control study. Ann Rheum Dis 2019;78:1288-1291.Disclosure of Interests:Hsin-Hua Chen: None declared, Wen-Cheng Chao: None declared, Yi-Hsing Chen Grant/research support from: Taiwan Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan Department of Health, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, National Yang-Ming University, GSK, Pfizer, BMS., Consultant of: Pfizer, Novartis, Abbvie, Johnson & Johnson, BMS, Roche, Lilly, GSK, Astra& Zeneca, Sanofi, MSD, Guigai, Astellas, Inova Diagnostics, UCB, Agnitio Science Technology, United Biopharma, Thermo Fisher, Gilead., Paid instructor for: Pfizer, Novartis, Johnson & Johnson, Roche, Lilly, Astra& Zeneca, Sanofi, Astellas, Agnitio Science Technology, United Biopharma., Speakers bureau: Pfizer, Novartis, Abbvie, Johnson & Johnson, BMS, Roche, Lilly, GSK, Astra& Zeneca, Sanofi, MSD, Guigai, Astellas, Inova Diagnostics, UCB, Agnitio Science Technology, United Biopharma, Thermo Fisher, Gilead., Der-Yuan Chen: None declared, Ching-Heng Lin: None declared

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Emission of fine particles (PM2.5) from residential biomass combustion in Croatia and how to reduce it

Environmental engineering ◽

10.37023/ee.7.2.6 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 7 (2) ◽

pp. 84-94

Author(s):

Mirela Poljanac

Keyword(s):

Air Quality ◽

Human Health ◽

Urban Areas ◽

Fine Particles ◽

Biomass Combustion ◽

Rural And Urban Areas ◽

Wood Burning ◽

Rural And Urban ◽

The Impact ◽

Pm2.5 Emissions

Wood burning in residential appliances is very represented in the Republic of Croatia. It is a main or an additional form of heating for many households in rural and urban areas and is therefore an important source of air pollution. The choice of energy and the combustion appliance used in home have a significant impact on PM2.5 emissions. The paper informs the reader about PM2.5 emissions, their main sources and impacts on human health, environment, climate, air quality, and the reason why PM2.5 emissions from residential wood burning are harmful. Paper also gives an overview of spatial PM2.5 emission distribution in Croatia, their five air quality zones and four agglomerations. The paper analyses the sources and their contribution to PM2.5 emissions with the relevance of PM2.5 emissions from residential plants, the use of fuels in residential plants and their contribution to PM2.5 emissions and PM2.5 emissions by fuel combustion technologies in residential sector. Appropriate strategies, policies, and actions to reduce the impact of residential biomass (wood) burning on the environment, air quality and human health are considered.

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Meteorological Normalisation Using Boosted Regression Trees to Estimate the Impact of COVID-19 Restrictions on Air Quality Levels

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health ◽

10.3390/ijerph182413347 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 18 (24) ◽

pp. 13347

Author(s):

Sandra Ceballos-Santos ◽

Jaime González-Pardo ◽

David C. Carslaw ◽

Ana Santurtún ◽

Miguel Santibáñez ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Air Quality ◽

Regression Tree ◽

Air Pollutant ◽

Boosted Regression Trees ◽

Anthropogenic Emissions ◽

Data Series ◽

Sustainable Mobility ◽

Boosted Regression Tree ◽

Wide Range ◽

The Impact

The global COVID-19 pandemic that began in late December 2019 led to unprecedented lockdowns worldwide, providing a unique opportunity to investigate in detail the impacts of restricted anthropogenic emissions on air quality. A wide range of strategies and approaches exist to achieve this. In this paper, we use the “deweather” R package, based on Boosted Regression Tree (BRT) models, first to remove the influences of meteorology and emission trend patterns from NO, NO2, PM10 and O3 data series, and then to calculate the relative changes in air pollutant levels in 2020 with respect to the previous seven years (2013–2019). Data from a northern Spanish region, Cantabria, with all types of monitoring stations (traffic, urban background, industrial and rural) were used, dividing the calendar year into eight periods according to the intensity of government restrictions. The results showed mean reductions in the lockdown period above −50% for NOx, around −10% for PM10 and below −5% for O3. Small differences were found between the relative changes obtained from normalised data with respect to those from observations. These results highlight the importance of developing an integrated policy to reduce anthropogenic emissions and the need to move towards sustainable mobility to ensure safer air quality levels, as pre-existing concentrations in some cases exceed the safe threshold.

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Biomarkers and indoor air quality: A translational research review

Journal of Clinical and Translational Science ◽

10.1017/cts.2020.532 ◽

2020 ◽

pp. 1-10

Author(s):

Araliya M. Senerat ◽

Sheila M. Manemann ◽

Nicholas S. Clements ◽

Robert D. Brook ◽

Leslie C. Hassett ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Air Quality ◽

Indoor Air Quality ◽

Indoor Air ◽

High Sensitivity ◽

Air Pollutant ◽

Research Review ◽

Mortality And Morbidity ◽

Reactive Protein ◽

Indoor Air Pollutants ◽

The Impact

Abstract Introduction: Air pollution is linked to mortality and morbidity. Since humans spend nearly all their time indoors, improving indoor air quality (IAQ) is a compelling approach to mitigate air pollutant exposure. To assess interventions, relying on clinical outcomes may require prolonged follow-up, which hinders feasibility. Thus, identifying biomarkers that respond to changes in IAQ may be useful to assess the effectiveness of interventions. Methods: We conducted a narrative review by searching several databases to identify studies published over the last decade that measured the response of blood, urine, and/or salivary biomarkers to variations (natural and intervention-induced) of changes in indoor air pollutant exposure. Results: Numerous studies reported on associations between IAQ exposures and biomarkers with heterogeneity across study designs and methods. This review summarizes the responses of 113 biomarkers described in 30 articles. The biomarkers which most frequently responded to variations in indoor air pollutant exposures were high sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP), von Willebrand Factor (vWF), 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), and 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHP). Conclusions: This review will guide the selection of biomarkers for translational studies evaluating the impact of indoor air pollutants on human health.

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A Review of Air Quality and Concentrations of Air Pollutants in Nigeria

Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management ◽

10.4314/jasem.v24i2.25 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 24 (2) ◽

pp. 373-379

Author(s):

I.B. Abaje ◽

Y. Bello ◽

S.A. Ahmad

Keyword(s):

Carbon Monoxide ◽

Particulate Matter ◽

Air Quality ◽

Air Pollutants ◽

Fine Particles ◽

Fine Fraction ◽

The Body ◽

Atmospheric Pollutants ◽

Anthropogenic Sources ◽

Waste Dumps

This study generally classifies air pollutants on the basis of: primary or secondary, natural or anthropogenic, chemical composition, physical state, and the space scales of their effects. Air pollutants that affect air quality in Nigeria were discussed based on natural and anthropogenic sources. The natural sources include: sand dust, sea spray, volcanic activities, smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires among others, while the anthropogenic sources include: vehicular emissions, mining activities, industries such as cement companies and quarry factories, agricultural practices and solid waste dumps among others. Some of the atmospheric pollutants that posed greatest threat to human health were equally examined. They include: Sulphur dioxide (SO2) which can react with water vapor (H2O) in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and thus acid rain; particulate matter (PM) with less than 10 μm, particularly fine particles (PM2.5 ) and particles in the fine fraction that are smaller than 0.1 μm (ultrafine particles), can carry toxic chemicals which are linked to cancer; carbon monoxide (CO), even in very small concentrations, can prevent oxygen from being delivered through the body major organs; ozone which is a highly reactive gas causes oxidation of a number of macromolecules within a biological system and produces free radicals that can damage DNA molecules and cause carcinogenesis. Based on the aforementioned, this study recommends that priority should be given to the establishment of air monitoring stations in all urban centers of the country in order to provide accurate and continuous information on air quality. Keywords: anthropogenic pollutants, atmosphere, particulate matter, pollution

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Evaluating Atmospheric Pollutants from Urban Buses under Real-World Conditions: Implications of the Main Public Transport Mode in São Paulo, Brazil

Atmosphere ◽

10.3390/atmos10030108 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 10 (3) ◽

pp. 108 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Thiago Nogueira ◽

Pamela Dominutti ◽

Marcelo Vieira-Filho ◽

Adalgiza Fornaro ◽

Maria Andrade

Keyword(s):

Public Health ◽

Air Quality ◽

Public Transport ◽

Sao Paulo ◽

Atmospheric Pollutants ◽

Transport Sector ◽

São Paulo ◽

Transport Mode ◽

The Public ◽

The Impact

The broad expanse of the urban metropolitan area of São Paulo (MASP) has made buses, the predominant public transport mode for commuters in the city. In 2016, the bus fleet in the MASP reached 56,354 buses and it was responsible for more than 12 million daily trips. Here, we evaluate for the first time, the emission profile of gaseous and particulate pollutants from buses running on 7% biodiesel + 93% petroleum diesel and their spatial distribution in the MASP. This novel study, based on four bus terminal experiments, provides an extensive analysis of atmospheric pollutants of interest to public health and climate changes, such as CO2, CO, NOx, VOCs, PM10, PM2.5 and their constituents (black carbon (BC) and elements). Our results suggest that the renovation of the bus fleet from Euro II to Euro V and the incorporation of electric buses had a noticeable impact (by a factor of up to three) on the CO2 emissions and caused a decrease in NO emissions, by a factor of four to five. In addition, a comparison with previous Brazilian studies, shows that the newer bus fleet in the MASP emits fewer particles. Emissions from the public transport sector have implications for public health and air quality, not only by introducing reactive pollutants into the atmosphere but also by exposing the commuters to harmful concentrations. Our findings make a relevant contribution to the understanding of emissions from diesel-powered buses and about the impact of these new vehicular technologies on the air quality in the MASP.

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Magnetic monitoring of PM filters from Air Monitoring Stations during the COVID-19 lockdown in Rome, Italy (March 10th - May 18th, 2020)

10.5194/egusphere-egu21-3817 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Aldo Winkler ◽

Antonio Amoroso ◽

Alessandro Di Giosa ◽

Giada Marchegiani

Keyword(s):

Magnetic Susceptibility ◽

Air Quality ◽

Urban Areas ◽

Magnetic Measurements ◽

Air Monitoring ◽

Magnetic Minerals ◽

Concentration Data ◽

Local Conditions ◽

The Impact ◽

Monitoring Stations

An extensive survey of the magnetic properties of PM filters from selected air monitoring stations in Rome and other localities in Latium Region (Sacco Valley, Civitavecchia, Fiumicino) was conducted for outlining the impact of the lockdown measures on air quality.The magnetic measurements highlighted a relevant content of magnetic minerals, mostly attributable to traffic related sources, on the filters from two stations in Rome and two stations from the urban areas of Civitavecchia and Fiumicino.The PM filters from the Sacco Valley showed reduced concentrations of magnetic minerals, compared to Rome, however higher than the Castel Di Guido and Civitavecchia Sant'Agostino control stations.The daily PM concentration data did not generally correlate with the mass susceptibility data, indicating that PM was often dominated by non-ferromagnetic contents, presumably due to wind-driven natural dusts, as stressed by the frequent anticorrelation between mass magnetic susceptibility and PM concentration.In Magnagrecia air quality station, Rome, the average values &#8203;&#8203;of the concentration depending magnetic parameters resulted about a half of those measured in 2005 on the filters from the same station.From the Day plot, the filters with higher magnetic susceptibility values showed relatively coarse magnetite-like particles as the main magnetic minerals, ascribable to non-exhaust PM emissions from brakes.This study confirmed that the interpretation of PM concentration during the lockdown is not straightforward and depends on many factors, such as natural inputs, resuspension and local conditions; anyway, magnetic analyses confirmed to be a valuable tool in PM source apportionment and concentration data interpretation.

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Respiratory Symptoms and Spirometric Observations in Relation to Atmospheric Pollutants in a Sample of Urban Population

Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health ◽

10.1177/101053950001200202 ◽

2000 ◽

Vol 12 (2) ◽

pp. 58-64 ◽

Cited By ~ 5

Author(s):

K. Satish Kumar ◽

C.E. Prasad ◽

N. Balakrishna ◽

K. Visweswara Rao ◽

P. Uma Maheswara Reddy

Keyword(s):

Air Quality ◽

Respiratory Symptoms ◽

Ambient Air ◽

Air Pollutant ◽

Control Measures ◽

Atmospheric Pollutants ◽

Quality Data ◽

Ambient Air Quality ◽

Group I ◽

The Mean

The prevalence of respiratory problems and the ventilatory functions in subjects belonging to three sample areas with different levels of pollution was studied to ascertain if there is any association between air pollutant levels and abnormal ventilatory functions. The predominant activity existing in that area served as the basis for stratification of the city into industrial (Group I), commercial (Group II) and residential (Group III) areas. Ambient air quality data of suspended particulate matter SPM, SO2 and NOx of the three sample areas were measured using standard methods. 216 men included in the study were administered the American Thoracic Society - Division of Lung Diseases ATS-DLD respiratory questionnaire, clinically examined and subjected to routine laboratory investigations. Spirometry and salbutamol reversibility tests were performed as per the ATS guidelines 1991. The mean and peak levels of SPM in the commercial area and the peak levels in the residential area were higher than the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). The mean and peak levels of NOx and SO2 in all the three areas were lower than the NAAQS. A high prevalence of ∼ 30-50% of respiratory symptoms was reported in the present study. Respiratory and ventilatory abnormalities were higher in the commercial areas, which are associated with the higher mean and peak levels of SO 2 and the peak levels of NOx. The pollution control measures should also aim at the peak levels of pollutants as they have been shown to exacerbate the respiratory symptoms in the present study. Asia Pac J Public Health 2000;12(2): 58-64

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