Riboflavin Recovery of Spermatogenic Dysfunction via Dual Inhibition of Oxidative Changes and Regulation of the PINK1-Mediated Pathway in an Arsenic-Injured Rat Model

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ali Olfati ◽  
Eva Tvrdá
Keyword(s):  
Superoxide Dismutase ◽  
Glutathione Peroxidase ◽  
Semen Quality ◽  
The Body ◽  
Male Rats ◽  
Vehicle Group ◽  
Enzymatic Reactions ◽  
Tubular Atrophy ◽  
Testicular Weight ◽  
Dual Inhibition

Background: Arsenic trioxide (As2O3) poisoning and associated potential lesions are of global concern. Inversely, riboflavin (vitamin B2, VB2) a component of flavoproteins could play a vital role in the enzymatic reactions. Thus, this research aimed to explore the potential beneficial roles of VB2 during As2O3-injured-toxicity. Methods: Adult male rats were challenged as follows: 3 mg As2O3/L and 40 mg VB2/L alone or in combination administered in drinking water, for 30 consecutive days. Daily basis As2O3 and VB2 dissolved in deionized water for 5 min (gradually and slowly). Malondialdehyde (MDA), Glutathione Peroxidase (GSH), Superoxide dismutase (SOD), and Catalase (CAT) were computed for oxidative stress, and TAS (Total Antioxidative Status) levels were computed for the antioxidant system, for both serum and tissue. Apoptosis levels were assessed in the evaluation of testis gene expression. P<0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: The results show that As2O3 significantly decreased the body weight, testicular weight and volume, semen quality and testicular cell count (p<0.05). Furthermore, malondialdehyde (MDA) content in the testicular tissue of the As2O3 group rats was significantly higher in comparison to the vehicle group (p<0.05). Likewise, TAS C) and the activities of glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were reduced (p<0.05) when compared to the control. As2O3 induced testicular damage and seminiferous tubular atrophy. Monodansylcadaverine (MDC) assays mimicking the histopathology observations. Meanwhile, As2O3 upregulated the expression of mitophagy-related genes including PINK1, Parkin, USP8, LC3-I, Fis1, and Mfn2. However, p38, responsible for stress stimuli, was also upregulated by As2O3 administration. Conclusions: Our study revealed that VB2 supplementation protected testicular structures against As2O3-induced injury via dual inhibition of oxidative changes and regulation of the PINK1-mediated pathway. Therefore, our experiments provide a new mechanistic scheme with respect to As2O3-induced male reproductive system toxicity.

scholarly journals Riboflavin Recovery of Spermatogenic Dysfunction via a Dual Inhibition of Oxidative Changes and Regulation of the PINK1-Mediated Pathway in Arsenic-Injured Rat Model

2021 ◽  
pp. 591-603
Author(s):  
Ali Olfati ◽  
Eva Tvrda
Keyword(s):  
Semen Quality ◽  
Testicular Tissue ◽  
The Body ◽  
Vehicle Group ◽  
Enzymatic Reactions ◽  
Vitamin B2 ◽  
Tubular Atrophy ◽  
Antioxidative Status ◽  
Testicular Weight ◽  
Dual Inhibition

Arsenic trioxide (As2O3) poisoning and associated potential lesions are of a global concern. Inversely, riboflavin (vitamin B2) as a component of flavoproteins could play a vital role in the spermatogenic enzymatic reactions. Thus, this research aimed to explore potential beneficial roles of vitamin B2 during As2O3-injured-toxicity. Rats were randomly allocated into 4 groups (n=8/group) and challenged as follows (for 30 days continuously): Group 1 received normal saline, Group 2 was treated with 3 mg/l As2O3, Group 3 received 40 mg/l vitamin B2, Group 4 received 3 mg/l As2O3 + 40 mg/l vitamin B2. Both As2O3 and vitamin B2 were dissolved in deionized water. Malondialdehyde (MDA), Glutathione Peroxidase (GSH-Px), Superoxide dismutase (SOD), and Catalase (CAT) were assessed for the oxidative profile, while TAS (Total Antioxidative Status) levels were evaluated for the antioxidant system, in both serum and testicular tissue. P<0.05 was considered statistically significant. The results show that As2O3 significantly decreased the body weight, testicular weight and testis volume, semen quality and testicular cell count (p<0.05). Furthermore, MDA content in the testicular tissue of the As2O3 group rats was significantly higher in comparison to the vehicle group (p<0.05). Likewise, TAS and the activities of GSH-Px, CAT and SOD were reduced (p<0.05) when compared to the control. As2O3 induced testicular damage and seminiferous tubular atrophy. Monodansylcadaverine assays mirrored the histopathology observations. Meanwhile, As2O3 upregulated the expression of mitophagy-related genes including PINK1, Parkin, USP8, LC3-I, Fis1 and Mfn2. The p38 gene, responsible to stress stimuli, was also upregulated by As2O3 administration. Meanwhile, exposure to Vitamin B2 led to a significant decrease of the expression levels of mitophagy related genes. Our study revealed that vitamin B2 supplementation protected testicular structures against As2O3-induced injury via a dual inhibition of oxidative changes and a regulation of the PINK1-mediated pathway.

scholarly journals INFLUENCE OF «METISEVIT» ON THE ACTIVITY OF ENZYME AND NONENZYME LINK OF ANTIOXIDANT PROTECTION UNDER THE BULL’S BODY CADMIUM LOADING

2016 ◽  
Vol 18 (2(66)) ◽  
pp. 52-59
Author(s):  
B.V. Gutyj ◽  
Y. Lavryshyn ◽  
V. Binkevych ◽  
O. Binkevych ◽  
О. Paladischuk ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Lipid Peroxidation ◽  
Superoxide Dismutase ◽  
Vitamin E ◽  
Glutathione Peroxidase ◽  
Antioxidant Defense ◽  
Cadmium Stress ◽  
Antioxidant Defense System ◽  
The Body ◽  
Antioxidant Protection ◽  
Young Cattle

The article contains the research results of the effect of cadmium chloride on the indexes of enzyme and nonenzyme systems of  antioxidant defense system in young cattle, such as the activity of catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione levels of vitamins A and E. It is established that feeding calves at a dose of toxicant 0.04 mg / kg activity of catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione levels of vitamins A and E in the blood of experimental animals decreased throughout the experiment. The lowest indicators of antioxidant in the blood of young cattle is set on the twenty -fourth day of the experiment, which is associated with increased activation of lipid peroxidation and the balance between antioxidant system and lipid peroxidation intensity. Given the cadmium load of young cattle it is used a new integrated drug with antioxidant action «Metisevit», which includes metifen, sodium selenite and vitamin E wich is founded as stimulating effects on the activity of antioxidant protection. In particular,it is established probable increase in activity of catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione levels, vitamin A and vitamin E in the blood of young cattle, which has performed cadmium stress. These changes occur through comprehensive action components of the drug «Metisevit» that leads to the normalization of metabolic processes and free radical in the body of the bull. The results of the research indicate antioxidant drug «Metisevit» in the application of its young cattle and the validity of his administration to improve the body's antioxidant status of chronic cadmium toxicosis.

scholarly journals Effects of Three Types of Massage on Serum Levels of Malondialdehyde, Superoxide Dismutase and Glutathione Peroxidase After One Session of Exhaustive Exercise in Female Futsal Players

2021 ◽  
Vol 10 (4) ◽  
pp. 328-339
Author(s):  
Bahare Heydari ◽  
◽  
Mohsen Ghofrani ◽  
Mohammad Ebrahim Bahram ◽  
◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Oxidative Stress ◽  
Superoxide Dismutase ◽  
Glutathione Peroxidase ◽  
Recovery Period ◽  
Serum Levels ◽  
The Body ◽  
Exhaustive Exercise ◽  
Oxidative Stress Marker ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Significant Difference

Objective: The production of reactive oxygen species in exercise causes oxidative stress which disturbs the balance of oxidants and antioxidants, causing destructive effects on cells. The present study aims to investigate the effect of three types of massage (Swedish, Russian, Thai) on serum levels of Malondialdehyde (MDA), Glutathione Peroxidase (GPX) and Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) following one session of exhaustive exercise. Methods: This quasi-experimental study was conducted on 48 female futsal players aged 17-22 years in Zahedan, Iran who were selected using a purposive sampling method, and randomly divided into four groups of Swedish massage (Long strokes with pressing and tapping using hands), Russian massage (Medium to high pressure), Thai massage (Pressure to certain parts of the body) and Control. The exercise program was based on Bruce protocol. Serum levels of MDA, GPX and SOD were measured by before and immediately after exercise and after massage. Data analysis was performed using repeated measures ANOVA, considering a significance level of P≤0.05. Results: In all three types of massage, there was a significant decrease in serum level of MDA (0.22±0.08), and a significant increase in GPX (1.84±0.46) and SOD (10.02±2.86) levels after exhaustive (P=0.001). No significant difference was observed in the control group. Conclusion: It seems that Russian, Thai, and Swedish types of massage can affect the serum levels of the MDA (as an oxidative stress marker) and the antioxidant enzymes of GPX and SOD during the post-exercise recovery period.

scholarly journals PECULIARITIES OF ETHANOL INTOXICATION OF ANIMALS AT APPLICATION OF INTERMITTENT HYPOXIC TRAINING AT THE BEGINNING OF ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION

2021 ◽  
Vol 17 (2) ◽  
pp. 33-38
Author(s):  
L.P. Kozak
Keyword(s):  
Superoxide Dismutase ◽  
Alcohol Consumption ◽  
Glutathione Peroxidase ◽  
Alcohol Intoxication ◽  
Ethanol Solution ◽  
Male Rats ◽  
Human Organism ◽  
Intermittent Hypoxic Training ◽  
Hypoxic Training ◽  
Liver Tissues

Relevance. It was shown a wide therapeutic effects of intermittent hypoxic training (IHT) on the human organism which can increase the organism's resistance to damaging factors by inducing mechanisms of the safety use of energy resources. The objective: to investigate the protective effect of IHT applied at the beginning of the 30-day alcohol intoxication of rats on the redox processes and the state of the antioxidant system of blood and liver tissues. Materials and methods. The study was performed on white male rats, which were divided into four groups: the first - intact (control); animals of the second group received a 15% ethanol solution for 30 days as the only source of drink; third - animals under IHT; fourth - rats that IHT was applied at the beginning of 30 days alcohol intoxication. The amount of the consumed ethanol was monitored during the experiment. Intermittent hypoxic training was performed in the altitude chamber in the following mode: five 10-min “elevations” to a height of 6 km at a rate of 20 m/sec, intervals between the elevations being 30 min. The activity of antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase), total antioxidant activity (IAOA), as well as the content of lactic and pyruvic acids, malone dialdehyde and diene conjugates were determined. The research materials were homogenates of liver tissues and blood. The process is two-phase, which obviously reflects the stages of alcoholism. Results. It was found that alcohol intoxication of animals adapted to IHT is accompanied by an increase in the activity of superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase in the blood and liver tissue against rats that consumed ethanol as the only source of drink. A tendency to increase IAOA and catalase activity against rats that received ethanol for a long time under these conditions was revealed. Analyzing the process of consumption of ethanol solution by animals, we can conclude that animals have a pronounced craving for alcohol in this model of alcoholization. The application of IHT at the beginning of alcohol intoxication as a protective agent delays the phase of formation of a pronounced craving for ethanol and reduces the amount of daily alcohol consumption. Conclusions. Thus, sessions of short-term hypoxic effects at the beginning of chronic ethanol consumption, provide an increase in the antioxidant defence of these animals relative to rats with alcohol intoxication.

scholarly journals INDICATORS OF THE ELEMENT RANGE OF RAT’S BLOOD IN TERM ARTIFICIAL HYPOBYOSIS

2018 ◽  
Vol 3 ◽  
pp. 3-12
Author(s):  
Anna Umanska ◽  
Dmytro Melnichuk ◽  
Lilia Kalachnyuk
Keyword(s):  
Carbon Dioxide ◽  
The State ◽  
The Body ◽  
Descriptive Statistics ◽  
Male Rats ◽  
Statistical Criterion ◽  
Enzymatic Reactions ◽  
Metabolic Processes ◽  
Potassium Sodium ◽  
Artificial Hypobiosis

The promising method of anesthesia and anesthesia is the state of artificial hypobiosis. Hypercapnia is a prerequisite for creating an artificial carbon dioxide hypobiosis, along with hypoxia and hypothermia. Adhering to the conditions under which the state of artificial carbon dioxide hypobiosis is created, animals reduce the level and intensity of metabolic processes both in the body as a whole and in separate organs. In order to investigate the safety of the hypobiological state and evaluate its applicability in clinical practice, it is necessary to investigate the functional characteristics of the blood. One of the most important indicators is the change of elemental composition. After all, the set of micro-and macro-elements is involved in the enzymatic reactions of the organism, its metabolic processes. Therefore, the aim of the study was to investigate the elemental changes in the blood of rats for artificial hypobiosis. In experiments, white non-breeding male rats weighing 180–200 g were used, which were maintained under standard vivarium conditions. Animals were divided into 2 groups: control and experimental (the state of artificial hypobiosis). Each group had 7 animals. Measurement of the content of macro- and micronutrients was carried out using a mass spectrometric ionization method in an inductively coupled plasma on an IRIS Interband II XSP device manufactured by Thermo Scientific, USA. The results of the study were processed and presented using the methods of statistical analysis, namely: the method of descriptive statistics; Shapiro-Wielka's criterion for choosing a statistical criterion for comparing groups; Student's criterion; Mann-Whitney's criterion. Results of evaluation of dynamics in the experimental (hypobiotic) group using the criterion of sign-marks of Wilcoxon. As a result of the studies, increased levels of Sodium, Ferrum, Calcium were observed, while the content of Nickel and Barium reduced. The results of the analysis of the dynamics of blood parameters in the experimental group by the methods of descriptive statistics showed significant changes in such elements as: Potassium, Sodium, Ferrum, Calcium, Magnesium. The heterogeneity of the results of the experimental and control groups according to the Mann-Whitney criterion was demonstrated in the following elements: Potassium, Sodium, Ferrum, Calcium, Chromium, Strontium.

Estrogen administration, postexercise tissue oxidative stress and vitamin C status in male rats

1998 ◽  
Vol 76 (10-11) ◽  
pp. 952-960 ◽  
Author(s):  
Peter M Tiidus ◽  
Eric Bombardier ◽  
Nick Hidiroglou ◽  
Rene Madere
Keyword(s):  
Oxidative Stress ◽  
Superoxide Dismutase ◽  
Vitamin E ◽  
Vitamin C ◽  
Glutathione Peroxidase ◽  
Antioxidant Status ◽  
Male Rats ◽  
Glutathione Status ◽  
Estrogen Administration ◽  
Tissue Vitamin

Estrogen can putatively act as an antioxidant and protect tissues from exercise-induced oxidative stress. To test the in vivo efficacy of estrogen, the effects of 2 weeks of daily estrogen (40 µg·kg-1 body weight beta-estradiol 3-benzoate) injection on indices of immediate postexercise oxidative stress and antioxidant status were determined in adult male rats, with and without 8 weeks of prior dietary vitamin E deprivation. The treadmill running protocol (60 min at 21 m·min-1, 12% grade) induced significant oxidative stress as indicated by muscle glutathione status. Estrogen administration had little effect on postexercise tissue glutathione status, superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activity, and vitamin E levels. Estrogen administration induced significant reductions in muscle, liver, and heart vitamin C concentrations following exercise, as well as in unexercised male rats. Tissue vitamin C loss was not directly mediated through liver glycogen or glutathione status. Thus, estrogen administration generally did not appear to influence postexercise tissue indices of oxidative stress or antioxidant status and may have contributed to a decline in overall antioxidant protection by inducing losses in tissue vitamin C content.Key words: glutathione, vitamin E, muscle, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase.

scholarly journals Evaluation of the activity of antioxidant enzymes during chronic oral administration of a technical product derived from triazoles in the rats

2021 ◽  
Vol 65 (1) ◽  
pp. 45-49
Author(s):  
Valery N. Rakitskii ◽  
Elena G. Chkhvirkiya ◽  
Tatiana M. Epishina
Keyword(s):  
Oxidative Stress ◽  
Superoxide Dismutase ◽  
Body Weight ◽  
Antioxidant Enzymes ◽  
Stress Protein ◽  
Oral Intake ◽  
The Body ◽  
Male Rats ◽  
Technical Product ◽  
Toxicological Studies

Introduction. Entering the body in various ways, pesticides, being biologically highly active compounds, can pose a real danger to public health, causing changes in non-specific biochemical reactions of metabolism occurring in all living cells. The antioxidant system, represented as a balance of lipid peroxidation and antioxidant protection (POL - AOZ), is one of the metabolic regulatory mechanisms of these responses. The aim of the study was to study the effect of a technical product (TP), a derivative of triazoles, on the acti-vity of antioxidant enzymes in the rat body, under its repeated oral intake in a chronic 12-month experiment. Material and methods. A chronic (12 months) experiment was performed on male rats with a bodyweight of 200-210 g at the beginning of the study. Tested doses: 5.0, 16.0 and 55.0 mg/kg of body weight (1 control and 3 experimental groups, 20 individuals each). In the dynamics of the experiment, after 1, 3, 6 and 12 months, the state and behavior of animals, water and food consumption were observed. Changes in the enzymatic indices of the body’s antioxidant defense system (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase) were registered. Results. It was found that TP at a dose of 5.0 mg/kg of body weight does not cause significant changes in the activity of antioxidant enzymes, doses of 16.0 and 55.0 mg/kg of body weight cause an increase in the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and a decrease in the activity of catalase in the body of experimental animals compared to control animals. Discussion. In the conducted chronic experiment, it was found that the studied TP at a dose of 5.0 mg/kg of body weight does not cause significant changes in the activity of the studied antioxidant enzymes in the body of rats. The introduction of TP at doses of 16.0 and 55.0 mg/kg of body weight causes a significant change in the activity of such antioxidant enzymes as SOD and catalase. Our results are consistent with the literature data, according to which the cell quickly reacts to oxidative stress by increasing the activity of SOD, and SOD is considered even as a stress protein synthesized in response to oxidative stress. Conclusions. The conducted research shows the feasibility of studying antioxidant enzymes’ activity in the mammalian body in sanitary and toxicological studies to increase the reliability of the developed hygienic standards of xenobiotics in environmental objects and food products.

scholarly journals Effects of MgCl2 supplementation on blood parameters and kidney injury of rats exposed to CCl4

2016 ◽  
Vol 11 (1) ◽  
pp. 250-258 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sakhria Mbarki ◽  
Sabah Dhibi ◽  
Hafsia Bouzenna ◽  
Abdelfettah Elfeki ◽  
Najla Hfaiedh
Keyword(s):  
Lipid Peroxidation ◽  
Superoxide Dismutase ◽  
Glutathione Peroxidase ◽  
Hematological Parameters ◽  
Kidney Injury ◽  
Hemoglobin Concentration ◽  
Blood Parameters ◽  
Male Rats ◽  
Blood Levels ◽  
Experimental Conditions

AbstractThe purpose of this study was to evaluate the beneficial effects of magnesium (Mg) supplementation upon carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) toxicity. Our study was carried out on 24 Wistar male rats divided into 4 batches. During a 6 week period, one group served as a control, two groups received Mg (after 4 weeks one of these groups was then treated with CCl4), and a final group was treated with CCl4 only. Under our experimental conditions, CCl4 poisoning resulted in oxidative stress indicated by a significant increase in lipid peroxidation level in renal tissues. The blood levels of creatinine and urea increased while the blood level of uric acid and proteins decreased. CCl4 also induced an increase in superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) activity in kidneys, in the number of red blood cells (RBC), and in hemoglobin content (Hb) and mean cell hemoglobin concentration (MCHC). However, white blood cell count (WBC), platelet count (Pl) and catalase activity (CAT) all decreased significantly. Treatment with Mg was found to alleviate most of CCl4-induced damage by decreasing lipid peroxidation and by correcting changed hematological parameters, and catalase, glutathione peroxidase and superoxide-dismutase activities. The results provide strong evidence that Mg supplementation is beneficial in protecting the kidneys from CCl4 toxicity.

Hydrotherapy in the evaluation of enzymatic antioxidants in an elderly population

2020 ◽  
Vol 30 (Supplement_2) ◽  
Author(s):  
A Valado ◽  
S Fortes ◽  
M Morais ◽  
J Rosado ◽  
JP Figueiredo ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Oxidative Stress ◽  
Superoxide Dismutase ◽  
Glutathione Peroxidase ◽  
Glutathione Reductase ◽  
Venous Blood ◽  
The Body ◽  
Cell Aging ◽  
Enzymatic Antioxidants ◽  
Sod Activity ◽  
Antioxidant Agents

Abstract Introduction Oxidative stress is the imbalance between reactive species produced in the body during metabolic reactions and antioxidant agents that have the ability to neutralize or prevent the formation of these species. One of the effects of oxidative stress is the normal and physiological process of cell aging that arises from the accumulation of tissue damage caused by free radicals. Objectives To assess whether the activity of enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione reductase (GR) are influenced by the hydrotherapy sessions. Methodology 37 subjects aged 60 years old and above, of both genders, were divided into two groups (experimental and control). The experimental group underwent 15 hydrotherapy sessions supervised by a physical therapist. Two peripheral venous blood samples were collected at two different times: T0, instant before the intervention and T1, instant after the last session. The activity of SOD, GPx and GR enzymes were determined, respectively, with the Ransod superoxide dismutase, Ransel glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase commercial kits, from Randox Laboratories Limited, United Kingdom. The assay was performed as described in the kits and the sample results were obtained by spectrophotometric reading. Results SOD activity at T1 tended to decrease slightly compared to T0 (1437.64 ± 593.46 vs 1421.41 ± 705.39 U/g Hb). At T1, there was a statistically significant increase in GPx activity (48.14 ± 17.22 vs 57.72 ± 19.99 U/g Hb) and in GR activity (78.44 ± 21.26 vs 100.18 ± 30.85 U/L). Regarding gender, both genders tended to have higher values of GPx and GR at T1. Conclusion According to the obtained results, we conclude that the practice of hydrotherapy presents as a positive stimulus in the antioxidant activity of aged individuals suggesting that a regular and moderate practice of exercise induces a higher quality of life.

scholarly journals Histopathological alterations in testicular tissue of male rats exposed to arsenic

2012 ◽  
Vol 4 (2) ◽  
pp. 247-251
Author(s):  
Reema Pachnanda ◽  
Shiv Pal Singh
Keyword(s):  
Body Weight ◽  
Sodium Arsenite ◽  
Testicular Tissue ◽  
The Body ◽  
Female Rats ◽  
Male Rats ◽  
Histological Evaluation ◽  
Seminiferous Tubules ◽  
Experimental Animals ◽  
Testicular Weight

The present study was designed to investigate the adverse effect of arsenic on testicular tissue of Swiss albino male rats. Sodium arsenite was administered to adult male rats by gavage at the doses 1, 2 and 3 mg/kg body weight for 30 days. After the treatment, the testis were processed for histopathological observations. Sodium arsenite caused remarkable reduction in testicular weight (P<0.05), while the body weight of experimental animals were reduced but not significantly (P<0.05). Histological evaluation revealed dose-dependent, gradual destruction in histoarchitecture of testicular tissue. Sodium arsenite exposure caused complete arrest of spermatogenesis with disfigured seminiferous tubules in the testes .The lumens of the tubules were devoid of spermatids and were in places filled with cellular debris. The germinal epithelium was distorted. At places interstitial odema was also evident. Sertoli and Leydig cells were damaged. Along with structural alterations, fertility rate in experimental animals was significantly decreased at higher doses i.e. 2 and 3 mg/kg, as 100% infertility was observed. After withdrawal of the treatment over a period of 30 days, recovery was observed in low dose groups as few female rats became pregnant. The study concluded that exposure of arsenic causes testicular toxicity in male albino rat.

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