Giving reasons as a means to enhance compliance with legal norms

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Daphna Lewinsohn-Zamir ◽  
Eyal Zamir ◽  
Ori Katz
Keyword(s):  
Automatic System ◽  
Theoretical Discussion ◽  
Policy Makers ◽  
Legal Norms ◽  
Theoretical Part ◽  
Deliberative System ◽  
System 2 ◽  
Enforcement Mechanisms ◽  
System 1

The threat of sanctions is often insufficient to ensure compliance with legal norms. Recently, much attention has been given to nudges – choice-preserving measures that take advantage of people’s automatic System 1 thinking – as a means of influencing behaviour without sanctions, but nudges are often ineffective and controversial. This article explores the provision of information about the reasons underlying legal norms, as a means to enhance compliance, primarily through deliberative System 2 thinking. While the idea that legal norms should be accompanied by explanatory preambles – to complement the law’s threat of sanctions with persuasion – goes back to Plato, this technique is not commonly used nowadays, and scholars have failed to systematically consider this possibility. The article argues that reason giving can enhance compliance and reduce the need for costly enforcement mechanisms. The theoretical part of the article comprises three parts. It first describes the mechanisms through which reasons may influence people’s behaviour. It then distinguishes between reason giving as a means to enhance compliance and as a means to attain other goals and between reason giving and related means to enhance compliance. Finally, it discusses various policy and pragmatic considerations that bear on the use of reason giving. Following the theoretical discussion, the empirical part of the article uses vignette studies to demonstrate the feasibility and efficacy of the reason-giving technique. The results of these new studies show that providing good reasons for legal norms enhances people’s inclination to comply with them, in comparison to not providing the reasons underlying the norms. However, whereas persuasive reasons may promote compliance, questionable reasons might reduce it. We call on scholars and policy makers to pay more attention to this readily available measure of enhancing compliance with norms.

Reasoning about Durations

2020 ◽  
Vol 32 (11) ◽  
pp. 2103-2116
Author(s):  
Laura Jane Kelly ◽  
Sangeet Khemlani ◽  
P. N. Johnson-Laird
Keyword(s):  
Mental Models ◽  
Model Theory ◽  
Mental Model ◽  
Alternative Model ◽  
Alternative Procedure ◽  
Logical Calculus ◽  
Deliberative System ◽  
System 2 ◽  
System 1 ◽  
Formal Rules

A set of assertions is consistent provided they can all be true at the same time. Naive individuals could prove consistency using the formal rules of a logical calculus, but it calls for them to fail to prove the negation of one assertion from the remainder in the set. An alternative procedure is for them to use an intuitive system (System 1) to construct a mental model of all the assertions. The task should be easy in this case. However, some sets of consistent assertions have no intuitive models and call for a deliberative system (System 2) to construct an alternative model. Formal rules and mental models therefore make different predictions. We report three experiments that tested their respective merits. The participants assessed the consistency of temporal descriptions based on statements using “during” and “before.” They were more accurate for consistent problems with intuitive models than for those that called for deliberative models. There was no robust difference in accuracy between consistent and inconsistent problems. The results therefore corroborated the model theory.

Rational Versus Intuitive Processing

2019 ◽  
Vol 31 (1) ◽  
pp. 2-11 ◽  
Author(s):  
Marina Krcmar ◽  
Allison Eden
Keyword(s):  
Experimental Design ◽  
Cognitive Load ◽  
Automatic System ◽  
Cognitive Systems ◽  
Moral Foundations ◽  
Moral Foundations Theory ◽  
Moral Foundation ◽  
Rational System ◽  
System 2 ◽  
System 1

Abstract. This study explored two main theoretical propositions. First, we tested Hartmann’s (2011 , 2012 ) notion that video games are processed via two separate cognitive systems: System 1, the automatic system, and System 2, the rational system. Specifically, we used a cognitive load manipulation to test if intuitive moral responses such as guilt and anthropomorphism are processed in System 1. Second, we utilized moral foundations theory to test the effect of care salience on guilt and in-game aggression. Using an experimental design ( n = 94), the results indicate that under conditions of cognitive load, players had somewhat lower in-game aggression. Effects on guilt and anthropomorphism were in the same direction, albeit with small effects. In terms of moral foundations, we found that care salience was not negatively related to in-game aggression but was directly related to guilt, indicating that greater emphasis on the moral foundation of care resulted in greater guilt. Also, anthropomorphism was positively related to experienced guilt and negatively related to in-game aggression.

Bias and Heuristics

2020 ◽  
pp. 119-126
Author(s):  
Thomas Boraud
Keyword(s):  
Cognitive Bias ◽  
Automatic System ◽  
Cognitive Biases ◽  
Dilution Effect ◽  
Herbert Simon ◽  
Anchoring Effect ◽  
First Impression ◽  
Human Decision ◽  
System 2 ◽  
System 1

This chapter addresses the cognitive bias and heuristics of judgement. It also considers possible underlying neural mechanisms. Economist Herbert Simon introduced the notion of heuristics in judgement to define the approximate rational rules upon which individuals rely to make decisions. Experimental psychologists Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky transformed this notion of heuristics by highlighting the cognitive biases that influence judgements. From his work with Tversky, Kahneman elaborated the two-systems theory. According to him, human decision-making is the result of a competition between a fast, automatic system (System 1) that is prone to make mistakes and a slower, more demanding but also more reliable one (System 2). Both systems use heuristics, but the second compensates with anticipation. This chapter then looks at initial bias and beliefs. It also explains the anchoring effect, as well as the dilution effect. Anchoring is the excessive influence of a first impression on judgements.

The Availability and Transparency of Education Data in California

2008 ◽  
Vol 3 (1) ◽  
pp. 41-57 ◽  
Author(s):  
Janet S. Hansen
Keyword(s):  
School Improvement ◽  
Data System ◽  
Policy Makers ◽  
Education Resources ◽  
Education Data ◽  
Education Leaders ◽  
System 2 ◽  
Education Decision ◽  
K 12 ◽  
System 1

This article describes the potential for using K–12 education data to support school improvement efforts and the effective and efficient use of education resources. It examines the availability and transparency of education data in California as part of the Getting Down to Facts effort to improve education decision making in that state. The study addresses three broad questions related to the state's education data system: (1) What is the current condition of California's education data system? (2) What is being done to strengthen it? and (3) What are the obstacles and challenges to improving the system so that it can be an effective tool for helping policy makers and education leaders understand how schools are performing and how resources can most effectively be allocated?

scholarly journals Milk Production, Body Weight, Body Condition Score, Activity, and Rumination of Organic Dairy Cattle Grazing Two Different Pasture Systems Incorporating Cool- and Warm-Season Forages

Animals ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (2) ◽  
pp. 264
Author(s):  
Kathryn E. Ritz ◽  
Bradley J. Heins ◽  
Roger D. Moon ◽  
Craig C. Sheaffer ◽  
Sharon L. Weyers
Keyword(s):  
Body Weight ◽  
Milk Production ◽  
Body Condition Score ◽  
Warm Season ◽  
Cool Season ◽  
Organic Dairy ◽  
Condition Score ◽  
Annual Grasses ◽  
System 2 ◽  
System 1

Organic dairy cows were used to evaluate the effect of two organic pasture production systems (temperate grass species and warm-season annual grasses and cool-season annuals compared with temperate grasses only) across two grazing seasons (May to October of 2014 and 2015) on milk production, milk components (fat, protein, milk urea nitrogen (MUN), somatic cell score (SCS)), body weight, body condition score (BCS), and activity and rumination (min/day). Cows were assigned to two pasture systems across the grazing season at an organic research dairy in Morris, Minnesota. Pasture System 1 was cool-season perennials (CSP) and Pasture System 2 was a combination of System 1 and warm-season grasses and cool-season annuals. System 1 and System 2 cows had similar milk production (14.7 and 14.8 kg d−1), fat percentage (3.92% vs. 3.80%), protein percentage (3.21% vs. 3.17%), MUN (12.5 and 11.5 mg dL−1), and SCS (4.05 and 4.07), respectively. Cows in System 1 had greater daily rumination (530 min/day) compared to cows in System 2 (470 min/day). In summary, warm-season annual grasses may be incorporated into grazing systems for pastured dairy cattle.

scholarly journals Comparison of Three Fungicide Spray Advisories for Lettuce Downy Mildew

Plant Disease ◽  
2001 ◽  
Vol 85 (8) ◽  
pp. 895-900 ◽  
Author(s):  
B. M. Wu ◽  
K. V. Subbarao ◽  
A. H. C. van Bruggen ◽  
S. T. Koike
Keyword(s):  
Downy Mildew ◽  
Drip Irrigation ◽  
Leaf Wetness ◽  
Lettuce Downy Mildew ◽  
Advisory System ◽  
System 2 ◽  
Forecasting System ◽  
Low Incidence ◽  
System 1 ◽  
First Time

Lettuce growers in coastal California have relied mainly on protective fungicide sprays to control downy mildew. Thus, timing of sprays before infection is critical for optimal results. A leaf-wetness-driven, infection-based advisory system, previously developed, did not always perform satisfactorily. In this study, the advisory system was modified by incorporating a pathogen survival component (system 1) or both survival and sporulation components (system 2). These systems were then evaluated in commercial lettuce fields in coastal California during 1996-1998. Three or four treatments were carried out in each field: (i) no spray; (ii) sprays as scheduled by the growers; (iii) sprays following modified system 1; and (iv) sprays following the original advisory system (1996) or modified system 2 (1998). Downy mildew incidence was evaluated every 2 to 9 days. In fields with drip irrigation, the number of fungicide applications was reduced by one or two regardless of the advisory system used compared to the grower's calendar-based schedule, although one unnecessary spray was recommended in 1996 at Soledad and 1997 at Salinas. Under all three systems, disease levels were low (incidence <25% and about 1 lesion per plant) for fields with drip irrigation, but not for fields with sprinklers (incidence up to 100% and 5 to 10 lesions per plant). For the first time, we established that survival and sporulation components are not needed for a lettuce downy mildew forecasting system. Instead, a threshold with a shorter period of morning leaf wetness and high temperatures were found to have potential for improving forecasting efficiency.

scholarly journals Performance of deep learning technology for evaluation of positioning quality in periapical radiography of the maxillary canine

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mizuho Mori ◽  
Yoshiko Ariji ◽  
Motoki Fukuda ◽  
Tomoya Kitano ◽  
Takuma Funakoshi ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Deep Learning ◽  
Characteristic Curve ◽  
Classification Performance ◽  
Learning Systems ◽  
Learning Technology ◽  
System 2 ◽  
Potential Benefits ◽  
System 1 ◽  
Periapical Radiography

Abstract Objectives The aim of the present study was to create and test an automatic system for assessing the technical quality of positioning in periapical radiography of the maxillary canines using deep learning classification and segmentation techniques. Methods We created and tested two deep learning systems using 500 periapical radiographs (250 each of good- and bad-quality images). We assigned 350, 70, and 80 images as the training, validation, and test datasets, respectively. The learning model of system 1 was created with only the classification process, whereas system 2 consisted of both the segmentation and classification models. In each model, 500 epochs of training were performed using AlexNet and U-net for classification and segmentation, respectively. The segmentation results were evaluated by the intersection over union method, with values of 0.6 or more considered as success. The classification results were compared between the two systems. Results The segmentation performance of system 2 was recall, precision, and F measure of 0.937, 0.961, and 0.949, respectively. System 2 showed better classification performance values than those obtained by system 1. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve values differed significantly between system 1 (0.649) and system 2 (0.927). Conclusions The deep learning systems we created appeared to have potential benefits in evaluation of the technical positioning quality of periapical radiographs through the use of segmentation and classification functions.

A New Class of Oxide Superconductor (Nd, Ce, Sr)2CuO4

1989 ◽  
Vol 156 ◽  
Author(s):  
E. Takayama-Muromachi
Keyword(s):  
Crystal Structure ◽  
Crystal Chemistry ◽  
Superconducting Phase ◽  
Type Structure ◽  
Oxide Superconductor ◽  
New Class ◽  
System 2 ◽  
New Type ◽  
System 1 ◽  
Tetragonal Cell

ABSTRACTSince the discovery of the high-Tc superconductor in the La-Ba-Cu-O system [1], a great deal of experimental and theoretical effort have been made to clarify the nature of the Cu-based oxides. In order to elucidate mechanism of the high-Tc superconductivity, discovery of a new type of superconductor is no doubt of great importance. Recently, Akimitsu et al. found a new oxide superconductor in the Nd-Ce-Sr-Cu-O system [2]. Soon after their discovery, the superconducting phase was isolated and identified [3]. It has a tetragonal cell with space group P4/nmm and has a structure closely related to but different from the K2NiF4− or T'-Nd2CuO4− -type structure. Although, Tc of the Nd-Ce-Sr-Cu oxide is not so high (ca. 20 K) compared with the 1–2–3 or Bi(Tl)-based superconductors, it has aroused interest widely due to a very simple crystal structure. In this article, I will discuss superconductivity and crystal chemistry of the Nd-Ce-Sr-Cu oxide. Also, various compounds isostructural to it will be presented.

scholarly journals Three levels of naturalistic knowledge

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Andreas Stephens
Keyword(s):  
Semantic Memory ◽  
Conceptual Knowledge ◽  
Procedural Knowledge ◽  
Dual Process ◽  
Long Term Memory ◽  
Cognitive Ethology ◽  
System 2 ◽  
System 1 ◽  
Level Of Analysis

A recent naturalistic epistemological account suggests that there are three nested basic forms of knowledge: procedural knowledge-how, conceptual knowledge-what, and propositional knowledge-that. These three knowledge-forms are grounded in cognitive neuroscience and are mapped to procedural, semantic, and episodic long-term memory respectively. This article investigates and integrates the neuroscientifically grounded account with knowledge-accounts from cognitive ethology and cognitive psychology. It is found that procedural and semantic memory, on a neuroscientific level of analysis, matches an ethological reliabilist account. This formation also matches System 1 from dual process theory on a psychological level, whereas the addition of episodic memory, on the neuroscientific level of analysis, can account for System 2 on the psychological level. It is furthermore argued that semantic memory (conceptual knowledge-what) and the cognitive ability of categorization are linked to each other, and that they can be fruitfully modeled within a conceptual spaces framework.

scholarly journals The psychology of diagnostic error

2015 ◽  
Vol 8 (3) ◽  
pp. 91-98
Author(s):  
L. Zwaan
Keyword(s):  
Diagnostic Errors ◽  
Diagnostic Error ◽  
Dual Process ◽  
Dual Process Theory ◽  
Process Theory ◽  
Diagnostic Process ◽  
Cognitive Errors ◽  
System 2 ◽  
System 1 ◽  
Analytic Reasoning

Diagnostic errors in medicine occur frequently and the consequences for the patient can be severe. Cognitive errors as well as system related errors contribute to the occurrence of diagnostic error, but it is generally accepted that cognitive errors are the main contributor. The diagnostic reasoning process in medicine, is an understudied area of research. One reason is because of the complexity of the diagnostic process and therefore the difficulty to measure diagnostic errors and the causes of diagnostic error. In this paper, I discuss some of the complexities of the diagnostic process. I describe the dual-process theory, which defines two reasoning modes, 1. a fast, automatic and unconscious reasoning mode called system 1, and a slow and analytic reasoning mode called system 2. Furthermore, the main cognitive causes of diagnostic error are described.

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