Abstract
A series of GOMRI-sponsored experimental and computational studies have discovered, elucidated and quantified the impact of small-scale processes on the dispersion, transport and weathering of crude oil slicks and subsurface plumes. Physical interfacial phenomena occurring at micron-scales include the formation of particle-stabilized emulsions, penetration of particles into oil droplets, formation of compound water-containing oil droplets during plume breakup, and the mechanisms affecting the breakup of oil into micro-droplet by tip streaming resulting from the drastic reduction in interfacial tension upon introduction of dispersant. Efforts aimed at development targeted delivery of surfactants have introduced solvent-free halloysite nanotubes that can be filled with surfactants, and preferentially released at oil-water interface. Buoyant surfactant-based gels, which enhance their encounter rates with oil slicks and adhere to weathered oil have also been developed. Studies of oil-bacteria interactions during early phases of biodegradation and shown how the bacteria, some highly active, attach to the oil-water interfaces and form complex films. Clay-decorated droplets sequester these bacteria and promote the propagation of these biofilm. Long extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) streamers generated by these biofilms form connected networks involving multiple droplets and debris, as well as increase the drag on the oil droplets. At 0.01–10 m scales, the generation of subsurface and airborne crude oil droplets by breaking waves, subsurface plumes and raindrop impact have been quantified. For waves, premixing the oil with dispersant reduces the droplets sizes to micron- and submicron-scales, and changes the slope of their size distribution. Without dispersant, the droplet diameters can be predicted based on the turbulence scales. With dispersant, the droplets are much smaller than the turbulence scales owing to the abovementioned tip-streaming. Aerosolization of oil is caused both by the initial splash and by subsequent bubble bursting, as entrained bubbles rise to the surface. Introduction of dispersant increases the airborne nano-droplet concentration by orders of magnitude, raising health questions. Dispersant injection also reduces the size of droplets in subsurface plumes, affecting the subsequent dispersion of these plume by currents and turbulence. Advancements have also been made in modeling of dissolution of oil in plumes, as well as in applications of Large Eddy Simulations (LES) to model plumes containing oil droplets and gas bubbles. The new multiscale framework, which accounts for the droplet size distribution and mass diffusion, can simulate the near- and far-fields of plumes, and predict the effect of vertical mixing promoted by turbulence on the transport of dispersed oil.
ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT PROCESS AT DIKES WITH CROWN WALLS AND PARAPETS
