Food security from a water perspective

Access to enough food to eliminate hunger is a fundamental right of society. Lack of food is an obstacle to social, political, economic, and cultural development of society. Investment in agriculture, support of education, and health development in the community can lead to food security. Water is fundamental to agriculture and hence to food and nutritional security. Water is also vital for plants and livestock. Agriculture has the largest share of water consumption, accounting for about 70% of all freshwater earmarked for human use, and good quality water is needed for production of a wide variety of non-food products, such as cotton, rubber, and industrial oils. In 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights affirmed everyone's right to adequate food. However, accessing adequate food in rural areas in many developing countries depends on access to natural resources, including water. On 28 July 2010, the UN General Assembly declared access to clean drinking water and sanitation as a human right. Significant changes in policy and management across the entire agricultural production chain are necessary to ensure the best use of available water resources to meet the growing need for food and other agricultural products. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) works with countries around the world to improve food security. It has been assisting member states in cooperation with public and private financial institutions since 1964, and has implemented numerous programs to invest in agriculture and rural development. In recent years, emergency aid to meet the urgent needs of people in Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) member states has been provided through these programs in times of crises, such as earthquakes, floods, droughts, and avian influenza.

Citizen science

Today, developments in science and technology have made people more sensitive to their surroundings, as well as to the problems and challenges that surround them or threaten their lives in the future. This change in the way people look at the problems and big challenges of life today has led them to increasingly use science and technology. Scientific and technological progress has enabled humans to solve challenges that were once thought insoluble. These problems often involve three main limiting factors: cost, time and the need to collect lots of data. Today, in most countries, a solution called ‘citizen science’ is used to solve these big problems and projects. Indeed, the main foundation of citizen science is that it is used to conduct extensive experiments by ‘citizen scientists’ in areas such as sampling and other time-consuming and costly activities. This chapter explains how, after an initial research plan is presented and has been evaluated, the decision is made by scientists whether or not to employ citizen scientists. In the next stages, described below, scientists attract volunteer citizens, then carefully plan the details of the subject and the relevant training and education needed to carry out the various stages of the research proposed. After completing these training courses, citizens scientists enter the stage of conducting experiments and collecting the required data. Finally, scientists analyze the information collected by scientists. The chapter describes this complete process, and supplies suitable examples.

Inter-basin water transfer

Providing water to satisfy human demands is one of the greatest challenges of the present century and has been the source of many changes in the world. Since the amount of renewable water the Earth receives is only equal to, or even less than, that received many years ago, renewable water per capita decreases as human population increases. Inter-basin water transfer is a method to augment supply in water-scarce regions. Increasing demand for water in some areas sometimes justifies the transfer of water from one basin to another. Water consumption in densely populated cities and in large industrial and agricultural operations produces an economic value that justifies the cost of expensive water transport equipment and infrastructure such as transmission channels, pipelines, pumping stations and dams. Under these conditions, water that is not in high demand in one basin is transferred to another basin for use. These projects are supply-driven engineering solutions to major social challenges. Inter-basin water transmission is carried out across local, regional, national, and international boundaries to overcome water scarcity, to meet demand in the agricultural, industrial and domestic sectors as well as to achieve economic and social development. Inter-basin transfer (IBT) is an important water resource management tool that can have significant impacts on the donor and recipient basins. This chapter aims to provide insights into the concepts, logics, methods and tools used to evaluate inter-basin transfer projects. Challenges that may arise with implementation of such projects and management methods to overcome these challenges are reviewed. Several case study examples of existing projects are presented to provide insight into how to better manage such projects in the future.

Forensic engineering

Throughout history, natural events such as floods, droughts, fires, lightning, and storms have caused significant losses of life and property. To mitigate the hazardous consequences of such events, or ‘failures’ (as they are referred to), a number of questions can be asked, such as: ‘What are the causes of these events?’; ‘What natural factors cause these events?’; ‘What is the human role in the occurrence of these events?’; ‘Who is to blame for such events?’; and ‘What actions should be taken to prevent such events from happening?’ The forensic engineering approach allows us to answer these questions. Forensic engineering, a term developed in recent years, allows us to identify the causes of events by looking back and analyzing the relationship between an event's causes and their consequences; it is a useful tool for determining the natural or human causes of events that lead to disasters. Forensic hydrology is a branch of forensic engineering and applies directly to floods and droughts but is not limited to these events. Forensic hydrology is also used for the historical assessment and analysis of events such as water pollution, drying of lakes and rivers, the drying up (or significant reduction in the water table) of wells, and the infiltration of saline water into freshwater. Forensic hydrology analyzes event evidence and data from a variety of perspectives. Examining the origins and mechanisms of such events to find their causes can lead to better water management, allocation and improved use, and can also help to prevent or minimize severe damage. This chapter provides an introduction to forensic engineering and describes the processes which should be followed to evaluate hazardous events.

Land use planning and overseas production

Land use planning is defined as the regulation of the relationship between space and human activities. Space occupied by human settlements, farmland and forests, parks, fallow land, rivers and lakes, and by transportation networks constitutes a network of areas dedicated to land uses such as agriculture, forestry, rangeland, industry, mining, recreation, and fishing. Land use planning is a comprehensive and long-term approach to planning human relations and their activities in space; it is the task of regulating and coordinating the strategies and general orientations of sectors, and it is the foundation of economies and human activities. The purpose of land use planning is to achieve an optimal distribution of economic and social activities. Land use selection and management are commonly done without regard to the carrying capacity of the land which, when exceeded, results in economic losses and in a reduction of environmental quality. The overall goal of land use planning is to achieve the optimal use of the land within the national interest framework. Accordingly, formulating a successful plan for managing the development of a country requires proper attention to the roles of geography and land use. Creation of a suitable balance between the Earth and its use by human activities can be achieved by proper land management. The increasing importance of environmental issues and human alteration of natural environments calls for sustainable development and land use practices that conserve natural resources while benefiting society and the environment. Nowadays, due to many factors such as climate change, population growth, changing standards of living, poverty, access to education, and mismanagement of natural and water resources, there is a need to diversify food and agricultural production in a variety of ways. Overseas cultivation is one of them, and it has potential for improving agricultural production. The practice of overseas cultivation by a country means planting and harvesting of a variety of agricultural products in other countries to be sold in its domestic market or in foreign markets. There are five basic principles that underline the success of overseas cultivation involving any group of countries: (1) mutual respect for the governance of all countries; (2) making and abiding by agreements between the countries; (3) non-interference in the internal problems of each country and respect for the territorial integrity of all countries; (4) optimal use of human resources and capacities to support agricultural activities and trade; and (5) expanding security and military cooperation.

Water footprint

Uneven water distribution in the world is the main reason today that some countries face problems due to water scarcity. Human activities consume and pollute large amounts of water. Globally, agriculture is the largest water user by volume. However, the water used by industrial and household sectors is still significant. Water consumption and pollution are caused by specific activities such as irrigation, bathing, washing, cleaning, cooling and by various other processes. Little attention has been paid to how much water use and pollution ultimately result from such activities, and how much water is consumed by communities, compared to the attention paid to the structure of the public economy that supplies consumer goods and services. Overall, to mitigate water scarcity problems, there are several approaches that can be made, such as inter-basin water transfer, increasing efficiency of water consumption and also using new concepts such as virtual water and the water footprint. The footprint of a product is the amount of fresh water used to produce it, measured across the complete supply chain. Water footprint is a multidimensional indicator that shows the amount of water consumed by the source as well as the amount and types of contamination.

Nanotechnology application in water resource management

Fast-growing water demand, population growth, global climate change, and water quality deterioration all drive scientists to apply novel approaches to water resource management. Nanotechnology is one of the state-of-the-art tools in scientists’ hands which they can use to meet human water needs via reuse of water and utilizing unconventional water resources. Additionally, monitoring water supply systems using new nanomaterials provides more efficient water distribution networks. In this chapter, we consider the generic concepts of nanotechnology and its effects on water resources management strategies. A wide range of nanomaterials and nanotechnologies, including nano-adsorbents, nano-photocatalysts, and nano-membranes, are introduced to explain the role of nanotechnology in providing new water resources to meet growing demand. Also, nanomaterial application as a water alternative in industry, reducing water demand in the industrial sector, is presented. Another revolution made by nanomaterials, also discussed in this chapter, is their use in water supply systems for monitoring probable leakage and leakage reduction. Finally, we present case studies that clarify the influence of nanotechnology on water resources and their management strategies. These case studies prove the importance and inevitable application of nanotechnology to satisfy the rising water demand in the modern world, and show the necessity of nanotechnology awareness for today's water experts.

Comprehensive integrated water management

Improper utilization of water resources has the potential to result in reduced availability of high-quality water and adverse effects on societal development. In fact, what appears to be a serious gap in comprehensive water resources studies is the lack of a coherent approach that can link different social, economic and environmental parts within the framework of the integrated water management paradigm to extract strategies and operational plans. Comprehensive water resources management (CWRM) is a process that intends to develop and manage water, land and other resources in a way that maximizes the social and economic well-being of human societies, without compromising the integrity and sustainability of vital ecosystems and future benefits. This chapter discusses the definitions of integrated and comprehensive water resources management describing the steps of using integrated management in practical examples.

Water security

Today, the concept of security manifests itself in a number of forms in most scientific, social, environmental, and political issues. One of the most essential and prominent types of security issue faced today is water security, which has introduced a complex and new concept to the literature of today's world. Not only has the current water crisis in most parts of the world increased the risk of military conflicts between countries, but the value of safe water will become even more apparent in the coming decades, which is why water security will have a special importance in the modern world. Water security is a concept that has attracted particular attention in recent decades from various dimensions. Estimates show that by 2100, the planet's population will increase from the current 7.7 billion (7.7 × 109) to 11.2 billion, and that providing adequate safe water for such a population is one of the significant challenges facing humans – because the world's freshwater resources are not just for individual consumption and for the environment, but they are also vital for the agricultural, energy, industrial, and transportation sectors. Therefore, it should be noted that the existing world water resources, both in terms of quantity and quality, are at a critical stage. However, the severity of this problem varies from region to region, with regions such as the Middle East and South Africa at greater risk of water scarcity. Water security is therefore a vital issue for all of us. This chapter first outlines the concept of water security from different perspectives, emphasizing that water security is a multifaceted issue, before finally examining solutions and policies to address to the challenges.