Young Adults with Higher Salt Intake Have Inferior Hydration Status: A Cross-Sectional Study

The body’s water and sodium balances are tightly regulated and monitored by the brain. Few studies have explored the relationship between water and salt intake, and whether sodium intake with different levels of fluid intake leads to changes in hydration status remains unknown. The aim of the present study was to determine the patterns of water intake and hydration status among young adults with different levels of daily salt intakes. Participants’ total drinking fluids and water from food were determined by a 7-day 24-h fluid intake questionnaire for 7 days (from Day 1 to Day 7) and duplicate portion method (Day 5, Day 6 and Day 7). Urine of 24 h for 3 days (Day 5, Day 6 and Day 7) was collected and tested for the osmolality, the urine-specific gravity (USG), the concentrations of electrolytes, pH, creatinine, uric acid and the urea. The fasting blood samples for 1 day (Day 6) were collected and measured for the osmolality and the concentrations of electrolytes. The salt intakes of the participants were evaluated from the concentrations of Na of 24 h urine of 3 days (Day 5, Day 6 and Day 7). Participants were divided into four groups according to the quartile of salt intake, including the low salt intake (LS1), LS2, high salt intake (HS1) and HS2 groups. In total, 156 participants (including 80 male and 76 female young adults) completed the study. The salt intakes were 7.6, 10.9, 14.7 and 22.4 g among participants in the four groups (LS1, LS2, HS1 and HS2 groups, respectively), which differed significantly in all groups (F = 252.020; all p < 0.05). Compared to the LS1 and LS2 groups, the HS2 group had 310–381, 250–358 and 382–655 mL more amounts of water from the total water intake (TWI), total drinking fluids and water from food (all p < 0.05), respectively. Participants in the HS2 group had 384–403, 129–228 and 81–114 mL more in the water, water from dishes and staple foods, respectively, than those in the groups of LS1 and LS2 (p < 0.05). The HS2 group excreted 386–793 mL more urine than those in the groups of LS1 and LS2 (p < 0.05). However, regarding urine osmolality, the percentage of participants with optimal hydration status decreased from 41.0% in LS1 and LS2 to 25.6% in the HS2 group (p < 0.05). Participants with higher salt intake had higher TWI, total drinking fluids and water from food. Nevertheless, they had inferior hydration status. A reduction in salt intake should be encouraged among young adults to maintain optimal hydration status.

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Pregame Urine Specific Gravity and Fluid Intake by National Basketball Association Players During Competition

Journal of Athletic Training ◽

10.4085/1062-6050-44.1.53 ◽

2009 ◽

Vol 44 (1) ◽

pp. 53-57 ◽

Cited By ~ 61

Author(s):

Kristin L. Osterberg ◽

Craig A. Horswill ◽

Lindsay B. Baker

Keyword(s):

Specific Gravity ◽

Fluid Intake ◽

Volume Of Fluid ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

National Basketball Association ◽

Urine Specific Gravity ◽

Hydration Status ◽

Sweat Loss ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Basketball Game

Abstract Context: Urine specific gravity (USG) has been used to estimate hydration status in athletes on the field, with increasing levels of hypohydration indicated by higher USG measurements (eg, greater than 1.020). Whether initial hydration status based on a urine measure is related to subsequent drinking response during exercise or athletic competition is unclear. Objective: To determine the relationship between pregame USG and the volume of fluid consumed by players in a professional basketball game. Design: Cross-sectional study. Setting: Basketball players were monitored during Summer League competition. Patients or Other Participants: Players (n = 29) from 5 teams of the National Basketball Association agreed to participate. Main Outcome Measure(s): Pregame USG was measured for each player on 2 occasions. Athletes were given ad libitum access to fluid during each game and were unaware of the purpose of the study. Volume of fluid intake was measured for each player. To assess sweat loss, athletes were weighed in shorts before and after each game. Results: Sweat loss ranged from 1.0 to 4.6 L, with a mean sweat loss of 2.2 ± 0.8 L. Fluid intake ranged from 0.1 to 2.9 L, with a mean fluid intake of 1.0 ± 0.6 L. Pregame USG was greater than 1.020 in 52% of the urine samples collected and was not correlated with fluid volume consumed during either of the games (r = 0.15, P = .48, and r = 0.15, P = .52, respectively). Conclusions: Approximately half of the players began the games in a hypohydrated state, as indicated by USG. Fluid intake during the game did not compensate for poor hydration status before competition. Furthermore, sweat losses in these players during games were substantial (greater than 2 L in approximately 20 minutes of playing time). Therefore, both pregame and during-game hydration strategies, such as beverage availability and player education, should be emphasized.

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Relationship between Sodium Intake and Water Intake: The False and the True

Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism ◽

10.1159/000463831 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 70 (Suppl. 1) ◽

pp. 51-61 ◽

Cited By ~ 8

Author(s):

Lise Bankir ◽

Julie Perucca ◽

Peter Norsk ◽

Nadine Bouby ◽

Morten Damgaard

Keyword(s):

Steady State ◽

Fluid Intake ◽

Salt Intake ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Urine Volume ◽

Sodium Concentration ◽

Epidemiologic Studies ◽

Low Sodium ◽

Salty Food ◽

Different Levels

Background: Generally, eating salty food items increases thirst. Thirst is also stimulated by the experimental infusion of hypertonic saline. But, in steady state, does the kidney need a higher amount of water to excrete sodium on a high than on a low sodium intake? This issue is still controversial. The purpose of this review is to provide examples of how the kidney handles water in relation to salt intake/output. It is based on re-analysis of previously published studies in which salt intake was adjusted to several different levels in the same subjects, and in databases of epidemiologic studies in populations on an ad libitum diet. Summary and Key Messages: These re-analyses allow us to draw the following conclusions: (1) In a steady state situation, the urine volume (and thus the fluid intake) remains unchanged over a large range of sodium intakes. The adaptation to a higher sodium excretion rests only on changes in urinary sodium concentration. However, above a certain limit, this concentration cannot increase further and the urine volume may then increase. (2) In population studies, it is not legitimate to assume that sodium is responsible for changes in urine volume, since people who eat more sodium also eat more of other nutrients leading to an increase in the excretion of potassium, urea and other solutes, besides sodium. (3) After an abrupt increase in sodium intake, fluid intake is increased in the first few days, but urine volume does not change. The extra fluid drunk is responsible for an increase in body weight.

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The comparison of water intake patterns and hydration biomarkers among young adults with different hydration statuses in Hebei, China

Nutrition & Metabolism ◽

10.1186/s12986-020-00531-2 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 18 (1) ◽

Author(s):

Jianfen Zhang ◽

Na Zhang ◽

Shufang Liu ◽

Songming Du ◽

Hairong He ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Young Adults ◽

Water Intake ◽

Plasma Osmolality ◽

Cross Sectional Study ◽

Trial Registration ◽

Hydration Status ◽

Trial Registry ◽

Clinical Trial Registry ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Males And Females

Abstract Background Water is essential for maintaining the functions of human body properly. Studies have shown that the amounts and contributions of fluids were associated with health and hydration status. The objectives of the study was that to explore the differences of water intake pattern and hydration biomarkers among young males and females in different hydration statuses. Methods A cross-sectional study was implemented among 159 young adults aged 18–23 years in Hebei, China. The total drinking fluids and water from food were obtained by 7-day 24-h fluid intake questionnaire and duplicate portion method, respectively. The osmolality and electrolyte concentrations of the 24 h urine and plasma were tested. Differences in optimal hydration (OH), middle hydration (MH) and hypohydration (HH) groups, divided by the osmolality of 24 h urine, were compared. Results Totally, 156 participants (80 males and 76 females) completed the study. OH group had highest proportions of participants met the recommendations of total water intake (TWI) and total drinking fluids of China (34.5%, 36.2%), while HH group had lowest (7.7%, 0.0%). OH group had higher amounts of TWI, total drinking fluids, water and lower amounts of sugar-sweetened-beverages (SSBs) (P < 0.05). The percentage of total drinking fluids in TWI decreased from 54.1% in OH group to 42.6% in HH group (P < 0.05). OH group had higher and lower contributions of water and SSBs to total drinking fluids (P < 0.05); produced 551–950 mL more, excreted significantly less quantity of solutes of urine (P < 0.05). No significant differences were found in plasma osmolality among the three groups (P > 0.05). Among both males and females, the amounts of TWI and water were higher in OH group than others (P < 0.05). Males had 4.3% lower, 5.4% and 1.1% higher contributions of milk and milk products, SSBs and alcohol to total drinking fluids than females (P < 0.05); males had higher volume of urine than females only in MH group (P < 0.05). There were no significant differences of plasma osmolality between males and females in the same group (P > 0.05). Conclusions Young adults with optimal hydration status had better water intake pattern and less concentrated urine. Females maybe have better water intake pattern than males. Trial registration Chinese clinical trial registry. Name of the registry: Relationship of drinking water and urination. Trial registration number: ChiCTR-ROC-17010320. Date of registration: 01/04/2017. URL of trial registry record: http://www.chictr.org.cn/edit.aspx?pid=17601&htm=4.

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Association of rheumatoid arthritis and high sodium intake with major adverse cardiovascular events: a cross-sectional study from the seventh Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

BMJ Open ◽

10.1136/bmjopen-2021-056255 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 11 (12) ◽

pp. e056255

Author(s):

Jeong-Hyeon Bae ◽

Min-Young Shin ◽

Eun Ha Kang ◽

Yun Jong Lee ◽

You-Jung Ha

Keyword(s):

Cardiovascular Events ◽

Salt Intake ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Major Adverse Cardiovascular Events ◽

Nutrition Examination Survey ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

High Sodium ◽

High Sodium Intake ◽

Health And Nutrition ◽

High Salt Intake

ObjectivesHigh salt intake has a harmful effect on hypertension; however, the association between major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) and salt intake is still controversial. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is also characterised by excess cardiovascular risk. However, few studies have investigated the combined role of salt intake and RA in MACE in the general Korean population. Here, we evaluated this relationship among the Korean adult population.DesignRetrospective, cross-sectional.SettingPopulation-based survey in Korea.MethodsThis study was based on the data of the seventh Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2016–2018). The estimated 24-hour urinary sodium excretion (24HUNa), a surrogate marker for daily sodium intake, was calculated using the Tanaka equation and was stratified into five groups (<3, 3–3.999, 4–4.999, 5–5.999 and ≥6 g/day). Finally, data from 13 464 adult participants (weighted n=90 425 888) were analysed; all analyses considered a complex sampling design. Multivariable logistic regression for MACE as primary dependent variable was performed and adjusted for potential covariates.ResultsParticipants with MACE had higher 24HUNa levels and RA proportion than those without MACE (p<0.001). The association of MACE with 24HUNa was J-shaped with a gradual increase from about 3 g/day. The highest 24HUNa (≥6 g/day) group was significantly associated with increased prevalence of MACE compared with the reference group (3–3.999 g/day) after adjusting for all associated covariates (OR 6.75, 95% CI 1.421 to 32.039). In the multivariate logistic regression analysis, RA (OR 2.05, 95% CI 1.283 to 3.264) and the highest 24HUNa group (OR 6.35, 95% CI 1.337 to 30.147) were significantly associated with MACE even after adjusting for baseline covariates.ConclusionsThese nationally representative data suggest that RA and extremely high sodium intake are associated with MACE in the general adult Korean population. Avoiding extremely high salt intake and considering RA as an important risk factor for MACE might help promote public cardiovascular health.

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HUBUNGAN PENGETAHUAN, KONSUMSI CAIRAN DAN STATUS GIZI DENGAN STATUS HIDRASI PADA KURIR EKSPEDISI

JURNAL RISET GIZI ◽

10.31983/jrg.v9i1.6428 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 9 (1) ◽

pp. 46-52

Author(s):

Fitri Kurniawati ◽

Laras Sitoayu ◽

Vitria Melani ◽

Rachmanida Nuzrina ◽

Yulia Wahyuni

Keyword(s):

Nutritional Status ◽

Fluid Intake ◽

Pearson Correlation ◽

Body Fluids ◽

Urine Specific Gravity ◽

Hydration Status ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Subject Knowledge ◽

Sufficient Knowledge ◽

Cross Sectional Design

Background: Hydration results from body fluids balance, while dehydration results from body fluids imbalance. Dehydration can result from losing too much water, not drinking enough or both of these things. There are certain job who has special needs for fluids especially who works in hot environments.Objective: To determine the relationship between knowledge, fluid intake and nutritional status with hydration status in expedition couriers.Methods: A cross-sectional design with 44 expedition couriers as the research subject. Knowledge of fluids were obtained using a questionnaire, fluid intake were obtained by interview using repeated 24-h food recall, nutritional status were obtained by using BMI and the hydration status were obtained by urine specific gravity using urinalysis reagent strips. The data was processed and analyzed using Pearson correlation test.Results: Most of the respondents had sufficient knowledge (59.1%). The average fluid intake of the respondents were 2562 mL. Most of the respondents had normal nutritional status (45.4%). Almost half of respondents has pre-dehydration (45.5%). There were arelationship between knowledge of fluids and hydration status (p=0,0001, r=-0,514), also between fluid intake and hydration status (p=0,0001, r=-0,685). There is no relationship between nutritional status and hydration status (p=0,337, r=0,148).Conclusion: Fluid intake and hydration status on expedition couriers are still not as expected, even though expedition couriers have sufficient knowledge.

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Relationship of sodium intake with obesity among Korean children and adolescents: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

British Journal Of Nutrition ◽

10.1017/s0007114515005152 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 115 (5) ◽

pp. 834-841 ◽

Cited By ~ 15

Author(s):

Soo-Kyung Lee ◽

Mi Kyung Kim

Keyword(s):

Children And Adolescents ◽

National Health ◽

Salt Intake ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Nutrition Examination Survey ◽

Significant Positive Association ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Korean Children ◽

Health And Nutrition ◽

High Salt Intake

AbstractWe investigated whether dietary and urinary Na is associated with adiposity in Korean children and adolescents (10–18 years), a population with a high salt intake. Study subjects were Korean children and adolescents who participated in the cross-sectional nationally representative Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2010–2011). This study used measures of dietary (24-h dietary recall) and urinary Na (Na:creatinine ratio) and three methods to determine obesity (BMI, waist circumference (WC) and total body per cent fat (TBPF)). Higher Na intake was significantly associated with obesity, adjusting for the covariates. Subjects in the highest tertile of urinary Na excretion had a significantly higher OR for higher adiposity compared with those in the lowest tertile (multivariate-adjusted OR 3·13 (95 % CI 1·81, 5·50) for BMI, 2·15 (95 % CI 1·27, 3·66) for WC and 1·92 (95 % CI 1·29, 2·86) for TBPF, respectively). Na intake estimated by the 24-h recall method also showed significant association with adiposity (multivariate-adjusted OR 2·79 (95 % CI 1·66, 4·68) for BMI and 2·14 (95 % CI 1·25, 3·67) for WC, respectively). The significant associations between Na and adiposity remained significant after additionally adjusting for sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption. Our results revealed a significant positive association between urinary and dietary Na and adiposity in Korean children and adolescents, independent of SSB consumption.

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Pregnant and Breastfeeding Women: Drinking for Two?

Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism ◽

10.1159/000462998 ◽

2017 ◽

Vol 70 (Suppl. 1) ◽

pp. 13-17 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Saptawati Bardosono ◽

Clémentine Morin ◽

Isabelle Guelinckx ◽

Rizki Pohan

Keyword(s):

Water Intake ◽

Fluid Intake ◽

Hydration Status ◽

Total Water ◽

Adequate Intake ◽

Cross Sectional Survey ◽

Total Fluid Intake ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Total Fluid ◽

Total Water Intake

The primary aim of this cross-sectional survey was to assess the total fluid intake (TFI; sum of drinking water and all other fluids) and the intake of water and all other types of beverages in a sample of pregnant and breastfeeding women representative of Java-Island, Indonesia. Therefore, 299 pregnant and 296 breastfeeding women completed a 7-day fluid-specific record. A secondary aim was to estimate the total water intake (TWI; sum of water from fluids and food moisture), and one 24-h recall was performed to determine water intake from food moisture. The median TFI of pregnant and breastfeeding women were 2,250 (1,800-2,800) and 2,360 (1,954-2,968) mL/day, respectively. The largest contributor to TFI was water (72 and 77% for pregnant/breastfeeding women, respectively). Pregnant women to the extent of 42% and 54% of breastfeeding women did not reach the adequate intake (AI) of water from fluids. In pregnant and breastfeeding women, the median water intake from foods was 592 and 613 mL/day, representing 21 and 20% of TWI. Concluding that a high proportion of the pregnant and breastfeeding subjects did not reach the AI of water from fluid, it seems important to put in place actions such as providing education materials and ensuring access to safe water. Moreover, future surveys should dedicate attention to the assessment of fluid intake and hydration status among pregnant and breastfeeding women in other countries.

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Hubungan Aktivitas Fisik, Konsumsi Cairan, Status Gizi Dan Status Hidrasi Pada Pekerja Proyek

Jurnal Gizi ◽

10.26714/jg.9.2.2020.215-223 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 9 (2) ◽

pp. 215

Author(s):

Ferlica Pustisari ◽

Laras Sitoayu ◽

Rachmanida Nuzrina ◽

Dudung Angkasa ◽

Nazhif Gifari

Keyword(s):

Physical Activity ◽

Nutritional Status ◽

Fluid Intake ◽

Gravity Data ◽

The Body ◽

Urine Specific Gravity ◽

Hydration Status ◽

Cross Sectional ◽

Average Value ◽

Spearman Correlation Test

Hydration status is a condition that describes the amount of fluid in the body. If the intake of fluids from food and drinks in the project workers is not met, then it has an opportunity to cause dehydration. Declining productivity in workers can be caused by dehydration. Objectives this study to determine the relationship between physical activity, fluid intake, nutritional status and hydration status in project workers. An observational study with a cross sectional approach, the study population was project workers. The number of samples in this study were 53 respondents. The study was conducted by direct interview, measurement of body weight,height, body fat percent and urine specific gravity. Data analysis in this study used the Spearman correlation test. The age of workers ranged from 17-52 years. The average BMI score was22,417 kg / m2.The average value of PAL 2.37. The average fluid intake was 2018.30 ml. Moyority of workers have hydration status in severely dehydrated group (79.2%.) There is a relationship between physical activity (0.026), fluid intake and hydration status (0.001) but there is no relationship between nutritional status and hydration status (0.789). Keywords: fluid intake; nutritional status; physical activity; hydration status.

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Positive and Negative Aspects of Sodium Intake in Dialysis and Non-Dialysis CKD Patients

Nutrients ◽

10.3390/nu13030951 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (3) ◽

pp. 951

Author(s):

Yasuyuki Nagasawa

Keyword(s):

Blood Pressure ◽

Nutritional Status ◽

Water Intake ◽

Salt Intake ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Extracellular Fluid ◽

Sodium Restriction ◽

Dialysis Patients ◽

Positive Effects ◽

Volume Blood

Sodium intake theoretically has dual effects on both non-dialysis chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients and dialysis patients. One negatively affects mortality by increasing proteinuria and blood pressure. The other positively affects mortality by ameliorating nutritional status through appetite induced by salt intake and the amount of food itself, which is proportional to the amount of salt under the same salty taste. Sodium restriction with enough water intake easily causes hyponatremia in CKD and dialysis patients. Moreover, the balance of these dual effects in dialysis patients is likely different from their balance in non-dialysis CKD patients because dialysis patients lose kidney function. Sodium intake is strongly related to water intake via the thirst center. Therefore, sodium intake is strongly related to extracellular fluid volume, blood pressure, appetite, nutritional status, and mortality. To decrease mortality in both non-dialysis and dialysis CKD patients, sodium restriction is an essential and important factor that can be changed by the patients themselves. However, under sodium restriction, it is important to maintain the balance of negative and positive effects from sodium intake not only in dialysis and non-dialysis CKD patients but also in the general population.

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Salt Intake in Nigeria: a nationwide population survey

European Heart Journal ◽

10.1093/ehjci/ehaa946.2866 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 41 (Supplement_2) ◽

Author(s):

A.N Odili ◽

B.S Chori ◽

B Danladi ◽

P.C Nwakile ◽

J.O Ogedengbe ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Salt Intake ◽

Sodium Intake ◽

Population Analysis ◽

Cost Effective ◽

Rural Site ◽

Urban Site ◽

Funding Source ◽

Salt Reduction ◽

High Salt Intake ◽

The Impact

Abstract Background Population wide salt reduction programmes are cost effective strategies for control of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Obtaining a nationwide salt consumption data in a multi-cultural setting as Nigeria's is key for proper implementation and monitoring of such strategy. Methods We measured sodium in 24-hour urine of free-living adult Nigerians selected from an urban and a rural site each from the 6 geopolitical zones of Nigeria to evaluate patterns of salt intake and its associations with blood pressures (BP). Results Across the 12 sites, sodium intake ranged from 97.9 in the rural South-South to 210 mmol/day in the urban site of the same zone. Overall, the median (IQR) daily sodium intake was 143.5 (97.8) mmol; with higher (p=0.0028) levels among the urban 149.7 (113.8) compared to the rural 133.1 (105.2) dwellers. Overall, 20% of the subjects consumed less than the recommended 2g (86mmol) of sodium daily. After adjustment for age, sex and BMI; sodium intake and BP (systolic and diastolic) were positively associated in 8 out of the 12 sites; significantly so in 2 (p<0.05) for systolic. Within population analysis; which included 973 individuals, increasing sodium intake tended (not significantly) to increase SBP but decrease DBP. However, among subjects whose sodium intake was in excess of 257mmol/day, a 100 mmol/day increase in sodium intake was significantly (p=0.04) associated with a 3.3 mmHg increase in SBP. Conclusion Salt intake among Nigerians is higher than the recommended. The impact of sodium intake on BP appears to be evident only among individuals with high salt intake. Funding Acknowledgement Type of funding source: Foundation. Main funding source(s): Wellcome Trust

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