The Efference Copy Signal as a Key Mechanism for Consciousness

Animals need to distinguish sensory input caused by their own movement from sensory input which is due to stimuli in the outside world. This can be done by an efference copy mechanism, a carbon copy of the movement-command that is routed to sensory structures. Here I tried to link the mechanism of the efference copy with the idea of the philosopher Thomas Reid that the senses would have a double province, to make us feel, and to make us perceive, and that, as argued by psychologist Nicholas Humphrey, the former would identify with the signals from bodily sense organs with an internalized evaluative response, i.e., with phenomenal consciousness. I discussed a possible departure from the classical implementation of the efference copy mechanism that can effectively provide the senses with such a double province, and possibly allow us some progress in understanding the nature of consciousness.

PREVENTIVE CARE IN OPHTHALMOLOGY – A REVIEW ARTICLE

Shalakya Tantra is an important branch in Ayurveda which deals with the diseases of the supraclavicular region. Eyecare is described under "Shalakya Tantra”. The eye is the most important and sensitive of five sense organs in the human body. Ayurveda also gives prime importance to the eye and primarily aim at the prevention of disease and promotion of positive health. Some of the faulty lifestyle exposures like sedentary habits, smoking, alcohol consumption, fat, sugar-rich diet, junk food, high carbohydrate food etc are notably associated with the risk of developing eye diseases. Association of eye diseases with Dinacharya, Ritucharya, Aahara-Vihara, Mind, Occu- pation, and Aging process are also important. Factors like continuous hours spent reading, watching TV, using mobile and working on computers take their toll on eye health. Ayurveda possesses vivid information about the lifestyle leading to healthy living and also the preventive strategies in general. For eye diseases, a few daily regi- mens like Aschyotana (eye drops), Anjana (Collyrium), Nasya (nasal application of drugs), Abhyanga (oil massage) are promoted as high-end measures for the maintenance of eye health, Various Netra vyayama (eye exercis- es), Yoga, Pranayama and Satkriya (Neti, Trataka etc) are also an effective therapy for healing of eye disorders. Keywords: Dincharya, Ritucharya, Aschyotana, Anjana, Padabhyanga

PRATYAHARA REGARDING TO SWAMI KRIPALVANANDJI : A STUDY

The goal of human life is possible through the study of YogaDarshan of Sage Patanjali. He described yogain series of eight limbs. The highest goal of human life is self realisation. The practice of Pratyahara is very important and essential restraint among other limbs of yoga. The Prana is the major driving force in the body and all the actions are performed with its help. To cycle the transmigration, one has to perform the practical of Pratyahara. There is no entry in to meditation without Pratyahara. because the release of prana leads the seeker to Pratyahara. So the study of this paper is an attempt to understand the Pratyahara. Sense organs are of five types i.e.1. Ears, 2. Eyes., 3. Tongue,4. Nose,5. Skin. They are required to withdraw from their respective subjects, i.e. Listen, Sight, Taste, Smell, Touch. Pratyahara is the process of withdrawal of mind from senses and withdrawal of senses from their respective subject. They are as under (1) Ears are attached with wordssound it is possible through the process of Nadanusandhan. (2) Eyes can see the God everywhere to control the sense of seeing. (3) Skin can feel the touching the presence of God at the inner self. (4) Taste of tongue can recognise the virtues of God. (5) Nose can recognisethe airfor fragment and obnoxious, odour and control of breathalso. Pratyahara is so difficult for the seeker and common man but ancient sage of Veda make it easy to achieve the goal of life through the process of yoga and Pratyahara, Knowledge of Pratyahara eliminates the enemies of human being such as selfishness, greediness, desire, ego, etc., and to behave with others positively

What is the Link Between Mental Imagery and Sensory Sensitivity? Insights from Aphantasia

People with aphantasia have impoverished visual imagery so struggle to form mental pictures in the mind's eye. By testing people with and without aphantasia, we investigate the relationship between sensory imagery and sensory sensitivity (i.e., hyper- or hypo-reactivity to incoming signals through the sense organs). In Experiment 1 we first show that people with aphantasia report impaired imagery across multiple domains (e.g., olfactory, gustatory etc.) rather than simply vision. Importantly, we also show that imagery is related to sensory sensitivity: aphantasics reported not only lower imagery, but also lower sensory sensitivity. In Experiment 2, we showed a similar relationship between imagery and sensitivity in the general population. Finally, in Experiment 3 we found behavioural corroboration in a Pattern Glare Task, in which aphantasics experienced less visual discomfort and fewer visual distortions typically associated with sensory sensitivity. Our results suggest for the very first time that sensory imagery and sensory sensitivity are related, and that aphantasics are characterised by both lower imagery, and lower sensitivity. Our results also suggest that aphantasia (absence of visual imagery) may be more accurately defined as a subtype of a broader imagery deficit we name dysikonesia, in which weak or absent imagery occurs across multiple senses.

NASYA IN SHALAKYA TANTRA

Shalakyatantra is one of the Ashtanga Ayurveda that deals with the treatment of diseases related to the eye, ear, nose, throat, oral cavity, head, and scalp through oral medications, kriyakalpa, Panchakarma procedures, surgical and para-surgical procedures, etc. Nasya is one among panchakarma; the intranasal method of drug administra- tion meant for treatment and detoxification and is widely used in Shalakyatantra. It is said ‘Nasa hi shiraso dwa- ram’; The nose is the gateway for drug administration for the ailments of head and organs situated in it viz, eye, ear, nose, throat, head, scalp, hair, and oral cavity. Nasya can be used also for the prevention of diseases, to strengthen the indriya (sense organs), and to bring Shiro laghuta by eliminating the doshas. This article is a com- pilation of references to Nasya used in shalakya tantra chikitsa. Keywords: Nasya, Shalakya tantra, Panchakarma, eye, ear, nose, throat, head, scalp, oral cavity.

AKSHADI TAILA NASYA AND VIDDHAKARMA IN THE MANAGEMENT OF PRATH-AMAPATALAGATATIMIRA - A PILOT STUDY

The eye is the prime sense organ among all sense organs, thus the word Drushti indicates the function of vision. Sushruta has described 12 Drishtigat rogas in Uttartantra. The anatomical consideration of Patalas & symptoms of the vitiated Doshas situated in these Patalas reveals that the word Timira which is described as an ocular pathol- ogy in Ayurveda is nothing but errors of refraction. Myopia, a form of refractive error where the distant vision is compromised, embraces a large section of the present-day population. In today's world, the pace of life has become fast, irregular and stressful, due to which the visual acuity gets impeded, which can be correlated with Timira de- scribed in Ayurvedic classics. Prathama Patalagata Timira is explained by all Acharyasas a Sadhya Drishtigata Roga. When vitiated Doshas reaches the Pratham Patala of the eye, the patients have blurred vision; this stage is characterized by Avyaktasdarshana (Sushruta) & Animitta Avyakata Rupa Darshana (Vagbhata). Vagbhata has described Nasya as a treatment modality for Urdhwajatrugata Vikaras Sushruta has described Viddhakarma as a treatment modality for Timira in Sutrasthana. Akshadi Taila Nasya Yoga is explained in Ashtang Hrudaya. In the present trial, 30 patients of Prathama Patalagata Timira were selected and Nasya of Akshadi Taila was done along with Viddhakarma. Keywords: Timira, Nasya, Akshadi Taila, Simple myopia, Viddhakarma

6. The amphibians’ world

‘The amphibians’ world’ focuses on the amphibians’ sense organs. Amphibians have the eyes, ears, olfactory organs of smell in the nose, and touch receptors common to all vertebrates, but the relative importance of the different senses varies from group to group depending on habitats and modes of life. Anurans have a sensory world most like that of humans; their vision is good, and includes the ability to see colours, and their hearing is acute. Urodeles and caecilians rely much more on their senses of smell and touch. Amphibian larvae have an additional sensory system called the lateral line system. Amphibians use several sensory cues in combination to navigate around their territories.

INDIGENOUS DRUGS FOR EYE DISORDERS IN SHATKALPA ADHYAY OF KASHYAPA SAMHITA

The eye is one of the sense organs with the most important function of vision. Though of prime importance, it is a very delicate and sensitive part of the body and is exposed to the environment. Through ages, different herbs are being used in indian traditional medicine for treating eye disorders. These drugs are termed chakshushyadravyas in ayurveda texts, bruhattrayi as well as laghutrayi. Kashyapasamhita, a text on ayurveda pediatrics contributes a special chapter on six drugs for treating eye disorders in children. The present article reviews indigenous drugs mentioned in the sixth chapter of kalpasthan of kashyapa samhita in the management of eye disorders. Indigenous drugs for eye disorders in shatkalpaadhyay of kashyapasamhita: a review. Out of the six drugs stated by kashyapa for treating eye diseases some are common with other textbooks and well known. They have been traditionally used by local people with good results for years but there is a need to re-establish the use of these drugs in prophylaxis and management of eye conditions in a scientific way including standardization and aseptic use of these drugs.

The Use Of Songs And Music As A Motivational Tool In ELT

The practical use of songs in ELT is not a new technique, however music, songs are considered as a powerful tool in teaching a foreign language. It is known that the more sense organs are involved in the educational process, the more effective music in the lesson inspires, relaxes, captivates, and adjusts to a subtle but strong wave of perception. In addition, music develops memory and thinking as well. In this article, we will discuss the mechanisms of the influence of music, songs on the motivation of students, improving the quality of mastering new educational material, developing speech skills, creative and cognitive abilities, as well as reducing emotional tension in the process of teaching a foreign language.