Commercial Corn Hybrids as a Single Source of Dietary Carotenoids: Effect on Egg Yolk Carotenoid Profile and Pigmentation

Commercial high-yielding corn hybrids have not been evaluated for their ability to pigment egg yolk. Therefore, the objective of this research was to investigate the effects of commercial hybrids with different carotenoid profiles as the only source of pigments in the diets of hens on yolk color and carotenoid content, as well as the carotenoid deposition efficiency into the yolk. Treatment diets, differing only in one of five corn hybrids, were offered in a completely randomized design in six cages per treatment, each with three hens. Treatment diets and yolks differed in carotenoid profile (contents of lutein, zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin and β-carotene, p < 0.001), with total carotenoid contents ranging from 17.13–13.45 µg/g in diet and 25.99–21.97 µg/g in yolk. The treatments differed (p < 0.001) in yolk color, which was determined by yolk color fan (10.8–9.83) and CIE Lab (redness; range 12.47–10.05). The highest yolk color intensity was achieved by a diet with the highest content of zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin and β-carotene. The deposition efficiency of lutein and zeaxanthin (25.52 and 26.05%, respectively) was higher than that of β-cryptoxanthin and β-carotene (8.30 and 5.65%, respectively), and the deposition efficiency of all carotenoids decreased with increasing dietary content. Commercial corn hybrids provided adequate yolk color and could be the only source of carotenoids in the diets of hens, which could reduce the cost of egg production and increase farmers’ income.

Impact of Processing Approach and Storage Time on Bioactive and Biological Properties of Rocket, Spinach and Watercress Byproducts

The high nutritional value of vegetables is well recognized, but their short shelf life and seasonal nature result in massive losses and wastes. Vegetable’s byproducts are an opportunity to develop value-added ingredients, increasing food system efficiency and environmental sustainability. In the present work, pulps and powders of byproducts from rocket and spinach leaves and watercress were developed and stored for six months under freezing and vacuum conditions, respectively. After processing and storage, microbiological quality, bioactive compounds (polyphenols, carotenoids and tocopherols profiles), antioxidant capacity, and pulps viscosity were analyzed. Generally, the developed vegetable’s pulps and powders were considered microbiologically safe. Although some variations after processing and storage were verified, the antioxidant activity was preserved or improved. A rich phenolic composition was also registered and maintained. During freezing, the quantitative carotenoid profile was significantly improved (mainly in rocket and spinach), while after drying, there was a significant decrease. A positive effect was verified in the vitamin E level. Both processing and storage conditions resulted in products with relevant phenolics, carotenoids and tocopherol levels, contributing to the antioxidant activity registered. Thus, this study demonstrates the potential of vegetable byproducts valorization through developing these functional ingredients bringing economic and environmental value into the food chain.

HPLC-DAD-APCI-MS as a Tool for Carotenoid Assessment of Wild and Cultivated Cherry Tomatoes

Carotenoids are naturally occurring fat-soluble pigments found in many organisms. Because of their extensively conjugated carbon–carbon double bond system, carotenoids are potent antioxidants. Although the most abundant carotenoid and best singlet oxygen quencher found in red tomatoes is lycopene, carotenoid profiles may vary between genotypes. The objective of this work was to perform carotenoid profile indentification using HPLC-DAD-APCI-MS in ten wild cherry tomato accessions and one cultivated tomato. A mixture of hexane/acetone/ethanol (50:25:25) and 0.1% BHT was used for carotenoid extraction. For separation, a C30 column at 30 °C with a gradient consisting of methanol, methyl-tert-butyl ether, and water was used for their analysis. Ten major carotenoids were quantified within cherry tomato samples. All accessions present different profiles and quantities of carotenoids. Wild red tomatoes had more lycopene content that commercial tomato, whereas yellow tomatoes present no lycopene. From a functional viewpoint, higher concentrations of carotenoids that could play an antioxidant activity were measured from accessions IAC401, IAC426, LA1480, IAC391, and LA2692. This trait means that these germplasms may be targets for commercial activities. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that HPLC-DAD-APCI-MS has been used to analyze these accessions of wild cherry tomatoes that are both functionally promising and suitable for projects with social implementation at a local scale.

Antarctic Thraustochytrids as Sources of Carotenoids and High-Value Fatty Acids

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and carotenoids are needed as human dietary supplements and are essential components in commercial feeds for the production of aquacultured seafood. Microorganisms such as thraustochytrids are potential natural sources of these compounds. This research reports on the lipid and carotenoid production capacity of thraustochytrids that were isolated from coastal waters of Antarctica. Of the 22 isolates, 21 produced lipids containing EPA+DHA, and the amount of these fatty acids exceeded 20% of the total fatty acids in 12 isolates. Ten isolates were shown to produce carotenoids (27.4–63.9 μg/g dry biomass). The isolate RT2316-16, identified as Thraustochytrium sp., was the best producer of biomass (7.2 g/L in five days) rich in carotenoids (63.9 μg/g) and, therefore, became the focus of this investigation. The main carotenoids in RT2316-16 were β-carotene and canthaxanthin. The content of EPA+DHA in the total lipids (34 ± 3% w/w in dry biomass) depended on the stage of growth of RT2316-16. Lipid and carotenoid content of the biomass and its concentration could be enhanced by modifying the composition of the culture medium. The estimated genome size of RT2316-16 was 44 Mb. Of the 5656 genes predicted from the genome, 4559 were annotated. These included genes of most of the enzymes in the elongation and desaturation pathway of synthesis of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Carotenoid precursors in RT2316-16 were synthesized through the mevalonate pathway. A β-carotene synthase gene, with a different domain organization compared to the gene in other thraustochytrids, explained the carotenoid profile of RT2316-16.

Carotenoids in Milk and the Potential for Dairy Based Functional Foods

Carotenoids are a family of over 1100 known natural pigments synthesized by plants, algae, fungi and bacteria. Dietary intake of carotenoids is necessary for mammals as they cannot be synthesized in the body. In cows, the nature of the diet consumed strongly influences the composition of milk produced and this includes carotenoid concentration and profile. Fresh forage is the richest source of carotenoids for cows. The main carotenoids identified in forages are lutein, β-carotene, zeaxanthin and epilutein. Manipulating cow feed via carotenoid supplementation increases the carotenoid content of bovine milk. In humans, carotenoids have anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and provitamin A activity. Lutein is a major carotenoid in human milk and the brain tissue of adults and infants. Lutein and zeaxanthin are linked to improved eye health and cognitive function. Traditionally for humans, fruit and vegetables have been the main source of carotenoid intake. Functional foods present an opportunity to incorporate these naturally occurring compounds into milk products for added health benefits, widening the range of dietary sources of carotenoids. We offer an overview of the literature to date on carotenoid-fortified dairy products and infant formula. This review will describe and summarize the key mechanisms by which the carotenoid profile of bovine milk can be manipulated. We present findings on the origin and role of carotenoids in bovine and human milk, outline factors that impact the carotenoid content of milk, evaluate carotenoid-fortified milk products and discuss the associated challenges, such as bioaccessibility and stability.

Effects of Linseed Meal and Carotenoids from Different Sources on Egg Characteristics, Yolk Fatty Acid and Carotenoid Profile and Lipid Peroxidation

The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of supplementing the diet of laying hens with linseed meal and carotenoids from different sources on egg characteristics, yolk fatty acid and carotenoid profile, and lipid peroxidation. A 4-week experiment was conducted on 168 Lohmann Brown layers (43 weeks of age), assigned to four dietary treatments (42 hens/group; 21 replicate/groups with 2 birds/pen) consisting of a control diet (C) and three diets simultaneously supplemented with 6% linseed meal and 2% dried kapia pepper (E1), 2% dried sea buckthorn pomace (E2) and 2% dried carrot (E3). Every 2 weeks, 18 eggs/group/period were collected randomly from each group and used to determine the egg quality and nutritional parameters. The results showed that dietary linseed meal and carotenoids sources improved egg color, carotenoids’ accumulation in egg yolk and fatty acid profile, especially the n-3 PUFA content. Dietary carotenoids supplementation reduced, n-6/n-3 ratio, cholesterol content of the egg yolk and improved yolk pH, egg thickness and yolk oxidative stability. In conclusion, the use of these sources of carotenoids in the linseed meal enriched diets could be an effective way to improve the nutritional properties of the eggs without affecting their quality and consumer’s safety.

Enhancement of Xanthophyll Synthesis in Porphyra/Pyropia Species (Rhodophyta, Bangiales) by Controlled Abiotic Factors: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Red alga species belonging to the Porphyra and Pyropia genera (commonly known as Nori), which are widely consumed and commercialized due to their high nutritional value. These species have a carotenoid profile dominated by xanthophylls, mostly lutein and zeaxanthin, which have relevant benefits for human health. The effects of different abiotic factors on xanthophyll synthesis in these species have been scarcely studied, despite their health benefits. The objectives of this study were (i) to identify the abiotic factors that enhance the synthesis of xanthophylls in Porphyra/Pyropia species by conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis of the xanthophyll content found in the literature, and (ii) to recommend a culture method that would allow a significant accumulation of these compounds in the biomass of these species. The results show that salinity significantly affected the content of total carotenoids and led to higher values under hypersaline conditions (70,247.91 µg/g dm at 55 psu). For lutein and zeaxanthin, the wavelength treatment caused significant differences between the basal and maximum content (4.16–23.47 µg/g dm). Additionally, in Pyropia spp., the total carotenoids were considerably higher than in Porphyra spp.; however, the lutein and zeaxanthin contents were lower. We discuss the specific conditions for each treatment and the relation to the ecological distribution of these species.

Durum Wheat (Triticum durum L.) Landraces Reveal Potential for the Improvement of Grain Carotenoid Esterification in Breeding Programs

Carotenoids are essential in the human diet for their important functions in health. Besides, they are responsible for the yellow pigments desirable for industrial quality in durum wheat. The remarkable carotenoid content of durum wheat endosperm is mostly due to lutein. However, lutein esters have not been previously detected in durum wheat as in other cereals such as common wheat, tritordeum or Hordeum chilense. Esterification increases carotenoid stability and allows greater retention and accumulation through the food chain. Therefore, carotenoid esterification is revealed as a new key target in breeding. We characterized the carotenoid profile of 156 accessions of the Spanish durum wheat collection, searching for landraces with esterification ability. Interestingly, four accessions produced lutein monoesters and diesters. Also, traces of lutein monoesters were detected in eleven accessions. The identification of the first durum wheat accessions with esterification ability reported herein is a remarkable advance for carotenoid biofortification. Furthermore, variation for the relative content of zeaxanthin, α-carotene and β-carotene was also observed. This diversity for the β,ε and β,β branches of the carotenogenic pathway also represents a new opportunity for breeding for specific carotenoids in biofortification programs.

Plant Carotenoids as Pigment Sources in Laying Hen Diets: Effect on Yolk Color, Carotenoid Content, Oxidative Stability and Sensory Properties of Eggs

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of a supplementation diet for hens consisting of dried basil herb and flowers of calendula and dandelion for color, carotenoid content, iron-induced oxidative stability, and sensory properties of egg yolk compared with commercial pigment (control) and marigold flower. The plant parts were supplemented in diets at two levels: 1% and 3%. In response to dietary content, yolks from all diets differed in carotenoid profile (p < 0.001). The 3% supplementation level resulted in a similar total carotenoid content as the control (21.25 vs. 21.79 μg/g), but by 3-fold lower compared to the 3% marigold (66.95 μg/g). The tested plants did not achieve yolk color fan values as the control (13.47) or 3% marigold (11.47), and among them, calendula had the highest values (9.73). Despite the low carotenoid content in diets supplemented with basil herb, iron-induced malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration was low as for marigold (on average 106.83 vs. 92.68 ng/g after 250 min). The treatments differed in sensory color scores for fresh and hard-boiled yolks and flavor while other sensory properties were similar. In conclusion, the supplementation of plants in a hen diet may result in yolks containing carotenoids and other compounds showing a high antioxidant effect.