Effects of Capsiate Supplementation on Maximal Voluntary Contraction in Healthy Men

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Willemax dos Santos Gomes ◽  
Marcelo Conrado de Freitas ◽  
Yago Medeiros Dutra ◽  
Fabrício Rossi ◽  
Thiago Barros Estanislau ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Isometric Force ◽  
Area Under The Curve ◽  
Young Men ◽  
Voluntary Contraction ◽  
Peak Force ◽  
Fatigue Index ◽  
Placebo Condition ◽  
Maximal Voluntary Isometric Contraction ◽  
Condition Effect ◽  
Significant Difference

AbstractThis study aimed to investigate the effects of acute capsaicin analog (Capsiate - CAP) supplementation on maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) performance in healthy young men. Thirteen subjects (25.2±3.2 yrs) participated in the present study. In two different days separated by one week, the subjects ingested capsiate (12 mg) or placebo (starch: 12 mg) 45 minutes before a MVIC test. The MVIC test consisted of five 10-second knee extension maximal isometric contractions with 45 seconds of recovery between efforts. The peak force, mean force, minimum force, fatigue index, and area under the curve of each contraction were calculated. Main condition effect was found, with higher values of peak force (+4.83%, F=6.867, p=0.02), fatigue index (+8.96%, F=5.228, p=0.041), and area under the curve (+4.19%, F=4.774, p=0.04) for CAP compared to placebo, however, no interaction effect was found for any variable (F=0.090 to 1.356, p≥0.276). In summary, healthy young men produced higher maximal isometric force and delayed fatigue in the CAP condition compared to placebo condition (condition effect) but without significant difference between each effort.

scholarly journals The Effect of Static Stretching on Maximal Voluntary Contraction and Force-Time Curve Characteristics

2006 ◽  
Vol 15 (3) ◽  
pp. 185-194 ◽  
Author(s):  
Christos Papadopoulos ◽  
Vasilios I. Kalapotharakos ◽  
Georgios Noussios ◽  
Konstantinos Meliggas ◽  
Evangelia Gantiraga
Keyword(s):  
Maximal Voluntary Contraction ◽  
Isometric Force ◽  
Rectus Femoris ◽  
Biceps Femoris ◽  
Voluntary Contraction ◽  
Emg Activity ◽  
Static Stretching ◽  
Time Curve ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
Force Time

Objective:To examine the effect of static stretching on maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) and isometric force-time curve characteristics of leg extensor muscles and EMG activity of rectus femoris (RF), biceps femoris (BF), and gastrocnemius (GA).Design:A within subjects experimental design.Participants:Ten healthy students were tested after a jogging and a jogging/stretch protocol.Intervention:The stretching protocol involved a 10 min jog and seven static stretching exercises.Main Outcomes:Measurements included MVC, time achieved to MVC (TMVC), force at 100ms (F100), index of relative force (IRF), index of rate of force development (IRFD), and average integrated EMG activity (AEMG).Results:There were slight but no significant changes in MVC (1%), TMVC(4.8%), F100(7.8%), IRF (1%), and IRFD(3.5%) between measurement. A significant difference (21%;P< 0.05) in AEMG of RF was found.Conclusions:The present study indicated that a moderate volume of static stretching did not alter significantly the MVC and the isometric force-time curve characteristics. Neural inhibition, as it is reflected from AEMG of RF, did not alter MVC and isometric force-time curve characteristics.

scholarly journals Acute effect of elastic bandage technique on middle deltoid muscle force and activation in healthy men

2019 ◽  
Vol 32 ◽  
Author(s):  
Eurico Peixoto César ◽  
Gerson da Silva ◽  
Lorrayne Katherine Guilarducci
Keyword(s):  
Muscle Activation ◽  
Isometric Force ◽  
Deltoid Muscle ◽  
Acute Effect ◽  
Voluntary Contraction ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Shoulder Abduction ◽  
Kinesio Taping ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
Elastic Bandage

Abstract Introduction: Elastic bandages (EB), such as Kinesio taping, have been widely used in sports or daily life activities with the aim of preventing or reducing musculoskeletal injuries. It has been suggested that Kinesio Taping is capable of altering muscle activation through neurophysiological mechanisms, but the evidences about this are controversial. Objective: To verify the acute effect of EB on maximum voluntary isometric force (MVIF) and muscle activation of the middle deltoid muscle during muscle contraction. Method: Twenty-four healthy male (24 ± 4 years, 73.2 ± 13.9kg, 1.80 ± 0.10m) were randomly assigned to a group with elastic bandage activated at 100% (AEB n = 8); with tensionless elastic bandage (NEB n = 8), and the control group (CG n = 9). The volunteers were instructed to perform 5s of maximal isometric contraction at 90° of shoulder abduction while the MIVF and EMGrms records were registered. Results: One-way ANOVA was unable to identify significant difference (α = 0.05) in MIVF and EMGrms of the middle deltoid at 90° of shoulder abduction. Conclusion: The application of elastic bandage was not able to alter the production of maximal isometric voluntary contraction and activation of the middle deltoid muscle of healthy individuals and, therefore, its use is not justified for these purposes.

GROWTH HORMONE RESPONSES TO FRUCTOSE IN DIABETES MELLITUS

1974 ◽  
Vol 75 (3) ◽  
pp. 497-502
Author(s):  
Mayer B. Davidson ◽  
Roger M. Steele
Keyword(s):  
Diabetes Mellitus ◽  
Growth Hormone ◽  
Fasting Glucose ◽  
Area Under The Curve ◽  
Oral Glucose ◽  
Gh Secretion ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
Duration Of Disease ◽  
Hormone Responses

ABSTRACT Since fructose is normally metabolized in diabetics and has recently been shown to stimulate GH secretion, it was used to assess GH responses in diabetics. Fourteen diabetics (9 on insulin) and 8 controls matched for weight were studied. Fructose, infused over 10 min, was compared to arginine, infused over 30 min, both at 0.5 g/kg. Samples were collected at 0, 30, 60, 90 and 120 min and GH responses assessed as area under the curve minus the fasting area. There was no significant difference between the GH responses in diabetics and controls to either agent. Responses to arginine and fructose were significantly correlated (r = 0.60, P < 0.01) in all subjects, but not related to therapy, duration of disease or fasting glucose (75–287 mg/100 ml) in the diabetics. Oral glucose blunted the GH response to fructose in 2 controls. It is concluded that 1) fructose can stimulate GH secretion in male diabetics; 2) however, fructose-stimulated GH responses are not increased in diabetes mellitus.

Physical Activity Level and Motor Aptitude: Motor Domains and Identification Capacity of Brazilian Insufficiently Active Older Adults

2020 ◽  
Vol 13 ◽  
Author(s):  
Lucia Maria Andreis ◽  
Fernando de Aguiar Lemos ◽  
Lorenna Walesca de Lima Silva ◽  
Cassiana Luiza Pistorello Garcia ◽  
Gabrielli Veras ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Physical Activity ◽  
Older Adults ◽  
Physical Activity Level ◽  
Area Under The Curve ◽  
The Elderly ◽  
Activity Level ◽  
General Motor ◽  
Body Scheme ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
Global Coordination

Background: A decrease in the physical activity level in old age is common, which results in an increase in the number of falls and chronic conditions. Associated with that occurs the decline in motor skills as a result of the deficit in the interaction of cognitive and motor processes. Physical activity level can be associated differently with each motor domains. Objective: We analyzed the relationship between physical activity level and motor aptitude, and to identify which motor domains were most sensitive to detect insufficiently active level in older adults. Methods: Participated in the study 385 elderly people of both sexes. For the evaluation of the subjects were adopted the International Questionnaire on Physical Activity and the Motor Scale for Older Adults. Results: The majority of the elderly were active. In the comparison of motor aptitude between active and insufficiently active (IAC) elders a significant difference was found in the Global Coordination, Balance, Body Scheme and General Motor Aptitude. From the analysis of the area under the curve (AUC), we verified that these domains also were the ones that presented adequate diagnostic accuracy to identify IAC elderly. Besides that active elderly have presented the General Motor Aptitude classified within normality while the IAC below the normal. Conclusion: Our data suggest that IAC older adults present lower motor aptitude than the active elderly, especially in the domains of Global Coordination, Balance, Body Scheme and General Motor Aptitude, and that these domains were sensitive to indicate IAC older adults.

scholarly journals Utility of the optical quality analysis system for decision-making in Nd: YAG laser posterior capsulotomy in patients with light posterior capsule opacity

2021 ◽  
Vol 21 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Bo Lu ◽  
Weijie Zhu ◽  
Yu Fan ◽  
Dong Shi ◽  
Liwei Ma
Keyword(s):  
Area Under The Curve ◽  
Quality Parameters ◽  
Optical Quality ◽  
Quality Analysis ◽  
Posterior Capsule ◽  
Clinical Trial Registry ◽  
Posterior Capsulotomy ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
Analysis System ◽  
Scattering Index

Abstract Background A prospective cohort study was performed to evaluate whether the Optical Quality Analysis System (OQAS) can serve as a valuable additional indicator for appropriate posterior capsulotomy referral. Methods One hundred and five eyes from 96 patients undergoing capsulotomy were divided into precapsulotomy logMAR CDVA ≤0.1 group and logMAR CDVA > 0.1 group. CDVA, and the Visual Function 14 index (VF-14) score were estimated before and 1 month after capsulotomy. The objective scattering index (OSI) value was measured by using the OQAS. Posterior capsule opacification (PCO) severity was assessed with Evaluation of PCO 2000 (EPCO 2000) software. Results In logMAR CDVA > 0.1 group, the correlations of OSI, logMAR CDVA, EPCO score and VF-14 score were very strong preoperatively. In logMAR CDVA ≤0.1 group, preoperatively, OSI was correlated with logMAR CDVA (r = 0.451), EPCO score (r = 0.789), and VF-14 score (r = 0.852). LogMAR CDVA has weak correlation with VF-14 score (r = − 0.384) and EPCO score (r = 0.566). VF-14 score was correlated with EPCO score (r = − 0.669). In the logMAR CDVA ≤0.1 group, there was no significant difference in logMAR CDVA between precapsulotomy and postcapsulotomy (P > 0.05). In the two groups, all the other optical quality parameters were significantly improved after capsulotomy (P < 0.05). In logMAR CDVA > 0.1 group, the area under the curve of the ROC of the OSI was 0.996 (P = 0.000). In logMAR CDVA ≤0.1 group, the area under the curve of the ROC of the OSI was 0.943 (P = 0.000). Conclusions The OSI was useful for evaluating of PCO and prediction of beneficial capsulotomy. Especially for patients with slight PCO and better visual acuity, OSI is more valuable than CDVA and completely objective examination. Trial registration The study protocol was registered at the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry. Register: ChiCTR1800018842 (Registered Date: October 13th, 2018).

scholarly journals THU0433 TREATMENT WITH PEGLOTICASE IMPROVES HEPATIC FIBROSIS ESTIMATED BY FIBROSIS-4 INDEX IN SUBJECTS WITH CHRONIC REFRACTORY GOUT

2020 ◽  
Vol 79 (Suppl 1) ◽  
pp. 454.1-454
Author(s):  
N. Schlesinger ◽  
A. Yeo ◽  
P. Lipsky
Keyword(s):  
Liver Disease ◽  
Linear Regression ◽  
Rank Order ◽  
Linear Regression Analysis ◽  
Area Under The Curve ◽  
Serum Urate ◽  
Complete Analysis ◽  
Alcoholic Fatty Liver ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
The Impact

Background:Hyperuricemia is associated with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)1,2, but the relationship to fibrosis remains uncertain3. Moreover, it is not known whether lowering serum urate will affect the course of NAFLD. The availability of data from two randomized trials of pegloticase, a pegylated recombinant mammalian uricase, that profoundly decreases serum urate afforded the opportunity to test the hypothesis that lowering urate might improve NAFLD.Objectives:To determine whether treatment of chronic refractory gout patients with pegloticase was associated with improvement in NAFLD determined by Fibrosis 4 index (Fib4).Methods:Databases from patients with chronic refractory gout who participated in two randomized 6 month clinical trials (RCTs) of pegloticase were analyzed4. Sub-sets who had persistent urate lowering to levels <1 mg/dL in response to biweekly pegloticase (Responders, n=36) were compared to those who received placebo (n=43). Since liver biopsy information was not available on these subjects, we relied on Fib4, a validated non-invasive estimate of liver fibrosis in a variety of liver diseases5,6calculated from measurements of AST, ALT, platelet count and age (Age x AST/platelets x √ALT). A Fib4 value of 1.3 is an indication that further evaluation of liver disease is warranted.Results:At baseline, the mean Fib4 values were 1.40 ± 0.86 in pegloticase responders and 1.04 ± 0.53 in subjects receiving placebo. As shown in figure 1, subjects receiving placebo exhibited a change of 0.26 ± 0.41 in the Fib4 score over the six months of the RCTs compared with 0.13 ± 0.62 in the pegloticase responders (p=0.048; by linear regression). When only the subjects with a Fib4 value > 1.3 were considered, a significant difference in the change in the Fib4 values over the 6 months of the trial between pegloticase responders and those receiving placebo was also observed (-0.15 ± 0.67 vs 0.37 ± 0.42, p=0.004, by linear regression). The correlations between serum urate area under the curve (AUC) over the 6 months of the trial and the change in Fib4 value was rs=0.33, p=0.0.0004 (Spearman rank-order correlation coefficient). Finally, multiple linear regression analysis indicated serum urate AUC (as a surrogate measure for group) is the main contributor to the change in Fib4 (p=0.018 by linear regression).Conclusion:The data are consistent with the conclusion that persistent lowering of serum urate had a significant impact on Fib4 levels, implying a possible effect on the course of NAFLD. The results support a more complete analysis involving biopsy examination of the impact of urate on liver inflammation and fibrosis.References:[1]Yang C et al. PlosOne2017; 12:e0177249[2]Jaruvongvanich V et al. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2017; 29:1031[3]Jaruvongvanich V et al. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2017; 29:694[4]Sundy JS, et al. JAMA. 2011; 306 (7):711-20[5]Sterling RK et al. Hepatol 2006; 43:1317[6]Shah AG et al. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2009;7:1104Disclosure of Interests: :Naomi Schlesinger Grant/research support from: Pfizer, Amgen, Consultant of: Novartis, Horizon Therapeutics, Selecta Biosciences, Olatec, IFM Therapeutics, Mallinckrodt Pharmaceuticals, Anthony Yeo Employee of: Horizon Therapeutics, Peter Lipsky Consultant of: Horizon Therapeutics

Factors affecting progression to permanent atrial fibrillation in an unselected population of patients with non-permanent form of atrial fibrillation

2020 ◽  
Vol 41 (Supplement_2) ◽  
Author(s):  
V.L Malavasi ◽  
E Fantecchi ◽  
V Tordoni ◽  
L Melara ◽  
A Barbieri ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Atrial Fibrillation ◽  
Cox Regression ◽  
Area Under The Curve ◽  
Roc Curves ◽  
Factors Affecting ◽  
Cox Proportional Hazard ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
History Of ◽  
Unselected Population ◽  
Cox Proportional Hazard Regression

Abstract Background Natural history of atrial fibrillation (AF) shows a progression of arrhythmia from non-permanent to permanent AF. Permanent AF was found associated with a worse prognosis than non-permanent one. Aim To assess the factors associated with progression to permanent AF in an unselected population of AF patients with non-permanent AF. Methods In this prospective study we enrolled in- as well as out-patients with non-permanent AF and age ≥18 years, with at least one episode of ECG-documented AF within 1 year. The patients were followed-up at 1 month and every 6 months thereafter. Results Out of 523 patients, 314 (60%) were in non-permanent AF (80 [25.5%] paroxysmal AF, 165 [52.5%] persistent AF, 69 [2%] first diagnosed AF), mostly male (188, 59.9%), median age 71 years (IQ range 62–77), median CHA2DS2VASc 3 (1–4), median HATCH score 1 (1–2). After a median follow-up of 701 (IQ range 437–902) days, 66 patients (21%) showed permanent AF. CHA2DS2VASc and HATCH scores were incrementally associated to progression to permanent AF (CHA2DS2VASc χ2 p=0.001; HATCH χ2 p=0.017; p for trend CHA2DS2VASc &lt;0.001, HATCH p=0.001). At multivariable Cox proportional hazard regression the following variables were significantly associated with AF progression: age (hazard ratio [HR] 1.041; 95% CI: 1.004–1.079; p=0.028), at least moderate left atrial (LA) enlargement (&gt;42 ml/m2) (HR 2.092; 95% CI: 1.132–3.866; p=0.018), antiarrhythmics drugs after the enrollment (HR 0.087; 95% CI: 0.011–0.662; p=0.018), EHRA score &gt;2 (HR 0.351; 95% CI: 0.158–0.779; p=0.010) and Valvular HD (HR 2.161; 95% CI: 1.057–4.420; p=0.035). Adding LA dilation to HATCH score (HATCH-LA) and assigning 2 points based on multivariable Cox regression, HATCH-LA was statistically better in ROC curves in prediction of AF progression vs HATCH score (area under the curve 0.695 vs 0.636; DeLong p=0.0225). Survival-free curves on freedom from permanent AF using as discriminator HATCH-LA score ≤2 vs &gt;2 led to a statistically significant difference (χ2=16.080 p&lt;0.001), but the same was not found for HATCH score (χ2 =3.099; p=0.078). Conclusions In patients without permanent AF, progression of AF was independentely related to age, LA dilation, AF symptoms severity, antiarrhythmic drugs and Valvular HD. HATCH score predicted AF progression and adding to it LA dilation (at least moderate) improved patients stratification for the risk of evolution to permanent AF. Funding Acknowledgement Type of funding source: None

scholarly journals Prognostic Value of Plasma hPG80 (Circulating Progastrin) in Metastatic Renal Cell Carcinoma

Cancers ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (3) ◽  
pp. 375
Author(s):  
Manish Kohli ◽  
Winston Tan ◽  
Bérengère Vire ◽  
Pierre Liaud ◽  
Mélina Blairvacq ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Renal Cell Carcinoma ◽  
Cell Carcinoma ◽  
Renal Cell ◽  
Prognostic Value ◽  
Risk Model ◽  
Predictive Accuracy ◽  
Area Under The Curve ◽  
Risk Groups ◽  
Prognostic Impact ◽  
Significant Difference

Precise management of kidney cancer requires the identification of prognostic factors. hPG80 (circulating progastrin) is a tumor promoting peptide present in the blood of patients with various cancers, including renal cell carcinoma (RCC). In this study, we evaluated the prognostic value of plasma hPG80 in 143 prospectively collected patients with metastatic RCC (mRCC). The prognostic impact of hPG80 levels on overall survival (OS) in mRCC patients after controlling for hPG80 levels in non-cancer age matched controls was determined and compared to the International Metastatic Database Consortium (IMDC) risk model (good, intermediate, poor). ROC curves were used to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of hPG80 using the area under the curve (AUC). Our results showed that plasma hPG80 was detected in 94% of mRCC patients. hPG80 levels displayed high predictive accuracy with an AUC of 0.93 and 0.84 when compared to 18–25 year old controls and 50–80 year old controls, respectively. mRCC patients with high hPG80 levels (>4.5 pM) had significantly lower OS compared to patients with low hPG80 levels (<4.5 pM) (12 versus 31.2 months, respectively; p = 0.0031). Adding hPG80 levels (score of 1 for patients having hPG80 levels > 4.5 pM) to the six variables of the IMDC risk model showed a greater and significant difference in OS between the newly defined good-, intermediate- and poor-risk groups (p = 0.0003 compared to p = 0.0076). Finally, when patients with IMDC intermediate-risk group were further divided into two groups based on hPG80 levels within these subgroups, increased OS were observed in patients with low hPG80 levels (<4.5 pM). In conclusion, our data suggest that hPG80 could be used for prognosticating survival in mRCC alone or integrated to the IMDC score (by adding a variable to the IMDC score or by substratifying the IMDC risk groups), be a prognostic biomarker in mRCC patients.

scholarly journals Evaluation of the Severity of Major Depression Using a Voice Index for Emotional Arousal

Sensors ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 20 (18) ◽  
pp. 5041
Author(s):  
Shuji Shinohara ◽  
Hiroyuki Toda ◽  
Mitsuteru Nakamura ◽  
Yasuhiro Omiya ◽  
Masakazu Higuchi ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Rating Scale ◽  
Area Under The Curve ◽  
Emotional Arousal ◽  
Arousal Level ◽  
National Defense ◽  
College Hospital ◽  
Medical College ◽  
National Defense Medical College ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
The Relationship

Recently, the relationship between emotional arousal and depression has been studied. Focusing on this relationship, we first developed an arousal level voice index (ALVI) to measure arousal levels using the Interactive Emotional Dyadic Motion Capture database. Then, we calculated ALVI from the voices of depressed patients from two hospitals (Ginza Taimei Clinic (H1) and National Defense Medical College hospital (H2)) and compared them with the severity of depression as measured by the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HAM-D). Depending on the HAM-D score, the datasets were classified into a no depression (HAM-D < 8) and a depression group (HAM-D ≥ 8) for each hospital. A comparison of the mean ALVI between the groups was performed using the Wilcoxon rank-sum test and a significant difference at the level of 10% (p = 0.094) at H1 and 1% (p = 0.0038) at H2 was determined. The area under the curve (AUC) of the receiver operating characteristic was 0.66 when categorizing between the two groups for H1, and the AUC for H2 was 0.70. The relationship between arousal level and depression severity was indirectly suggested via the ALVI.

scholarly journals Diagnostic Value of C-Reactive Protein in Discrimination between Uncomplicated and Complicated Parapneumonic Effusion

Diagnostics ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 10 (10) ◽  
pp. 829
Author(s):  
Yana Kogan ◽  
Edmond Sabo ◽  
Majed Odeh
Keyword(s):  
Area Under The Curve ◽  
Diagnostic Value ◽  
Parapneumonic Effusion ◽  
C Reactive Protein ◽  
Diagnostic Efficacy ◽  
Reactive Protein ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
Study Population ◽  
Complicated Parapneumonic Effusion

Objectives: The role of serum C-reactive protein (CRPs) and pleural fluid CRP (CRPpf) in discriminating uncomplicated parapneumonic effusion (UCPPE) from complicated parapneumonic effusion (CPPE) is yet to be validated since most of the previous studies were on small cohorts and with variable results. The role of CRPs and CRPpf gradient (CRPg) and of their ratio (CRPr) in this discrimination has not been previously reported. The study aims to assess the diagnostic efficacy of CRPs, CRPpf, CRPr, and CRPg in discriminating UCPPE from CPPE in a relatively large cohort. Methods: The study population included 146 patients with PPE, 86 with UCPPE and 60 with CPPE. Levels of CRPs and CRPpf were measured, and the CRPg and CRPr were calculated. The values are presented as mean ± SD. Results: Mean levels of CRPs, CRPpf, CRPg, and CRPr of the UCPPE group were 145.3 ± 67.6 mg/L, 58.5 ± 38.5 mg/L, 86.8 ± 37.3 mg/L, and 0.39 ± 0.11, respectively, and for the CPPE group were 302.2 ± 75.6 mg/L, 112 ± 65 mg/L, 188.3 ± 62.3 mg/L, and 0.36 ± 0.19, respectively. Levels of CRPs, CRPpf, and CRPg were significantly higher in the CPPE than in the UCPPE group (p < 0.0001). No significant difference was found between the two groups for levels of CRPr (p = 0.26). The best cut-off value calculated by the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis for discriminating UCPPE from CPPE was for CRPs, 211.5 mg/L with area under the curve (AUC) = 94% and p < 0.0001, for CRPpf, 90.5 mg/L with AUC = 76.3% and p < 0.0001, and for CRPg, 142 mg/L with AUC = 91% and p < 0.0001. Conclusions: CRPs, CRPpf, and CRPg are strong markers for discrimination between UCPPE and CPPE, while CRPr has no role in this discrimination.

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