The role of houseflies, Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae) as a mechanical vector for ESKAPE pathogens and drug resistance

2020 ◽  
Vol 18 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mohsen Karami ◽  
Mojtaba Taghizadeh Armaki ◽  
Ramazan Rajabnia ◽  
Saeid Mahdavi Omran ◽  
Ali Heidarpour ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Musca Domestica ◽  
Methicillin Resistance ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Resistant Bacteria ◽  
Drug Resistant ◽  
Antibiotic Susceptibility Test ◽  
Eskape Pathogens ◽  
Cuticular Surface

Introduction: The housefly (Musca domestica) is an important host for various pathogenic bacteria, including the ESKAPE group and acts as a reservoir for transmitting resistance factors. In this regard, this study was performed in order to survey the role of houseflies as a mechanical vector for ESKAPE pathogens and antibiotic resistance profiles of these strains in the four teaching hospitals and rural area in Babol, north of Iran. In this cross-sectional study, 280 adult house flies were collected with a sterilized nylon net. Methods: All samples were put inside separately in a sterile tube and anesthetized using freezing at 0ᵒC for 5 minutes. Bacterial isolates were identified from the external and internal surfaces. The antibiotic susceptibility test was performed by the disk diffusion method. A. baumannii, P. aeruginosa and Enterobacter isolates were not detected in rural samples. Only, one methicillin-resistance S. aureus was found in rural flies. In hospitals, the prevalence of the ESKAPE pathogens in the Cuticular surface and GI were 22.9% and 22.1%, respectively. Results: In total, the highest and lowest frequency rate was related to P. aeruginosa (6.1%) and A. baumannii (1.1%). Also, 66.7%, 5.9% and 12.5% of A. baumannii, P. aeruginosa and Enterobacter were resistant to imipenem, respectively. 21.4% of E. faecium were resistant to vancomycin. In total, 63 (22.5%) bacterial species collected from both the Cuticular surface and GI, 29 (46%) were multidrug-resistant (MDR). Conclusion: Houseflies obtained from hospitals may be involved in the distribution of drug-resistant bacteria and may increase the potential of human exposure to drug-resistant organisms.

scholarly journals The Occurrence of Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria Contamination in Sub-district Health-promoting Hospitals in Chiang Rai, Thailand

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Korakot Chansareewittaya ◽  
Sirikarnnapa Krajangcharoensakul
Keyword(s):  
Antibiotic Susceptibility ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Resistant Bacteria ◽  
Drug Resistant ◽  
Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria ◽  
District Health ◽  
Antibiotic Resistant ◽  
Microbiological Methods ◽  
Health Promoting

Objective: To determine the antibiotic susceptibility patterns (antibiogram profiles) of the bacterial agents usually involved in hospital-acquired infections found in 12 sub-district health-promoting hospitals (HPHs) in Chiang Rai, Thailand.Material and Methods: Swabs from 10 different sampling points in each sub-district HPH were aseptically collected. Standard microbiological methods were performed to define the bacterial species. Antibiotic susceptibility was determined by the disk diffusion method following the standard guidelines of the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (2016).Results: The antibiogram profiles of the 153 isolated bacteria showed that 55.6% of the isolates were resistant to antibiotics. Single drug resistant, double drug resistant, and multi-drug resistant bacteria accounted for 18.3%, 18.3%, and 19.0%, respectively. The Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolate was susceptible to all tested antibiotics. MDR phenotypes were most common in coagulase-negative staphylococci (13.1%), followed by members of the family of Enterobacteriaceae (3.9%) and Staphylococcus aureus (0.7%).Conclusion: The MDR rates reported in this study are “worrying”. These results suggest that sub-district HPHs may become sources of HAIs caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria which can be inevitably transmitted into the wider community. Antibiotic stewardship, antibiotic susceptibility surveillance and hygiene practices may be used to prevent and limit the spread of such bacteria from sub-district HPHs to the community.

scholarly journals Species, Risk Factors, and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Profiles of Bacterial Isolates from HIV-Infected Patients Suspected to Have Pneumonia in Mekelle Zone, Tigray, Northern Ethiopia

2019 ◽  
Vol 2019 ◽  
pp. 1-9 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gebre Adhanom ◽  
Dawit Gebreegziabiher ◽  
Yemane Weldu ◽  
Araya Gebreyesus Wasihun ◽  
Tadele Araya ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Risk Factors ◽  
Antimicrobial Susceptibility ◽  
Bacterial Pneumonia ◽  
Bacterial Infections ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Resistant Bacteria ◽  
P Value ◽  
Northern Ethiopia ◽  
Hiv Patients

Background. Pneumonia is a condition, where bacterial infections are implicated as the most common causes of morbidity and mortality in humans. The actual burden of HIV-infected patients with pneumonia is not well documented in Mekelle region of Ethiopia. This study estimated the prevalence of bacterial pneumonia in HIV patients, antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of pathogens implicated in pneumonia, and associated risk factors in Mekelle zone, Tigray, Northern Ethiopia, during August-December 2016. Methods. Sputum specimens were collected from 252 HIV seropositive individuals with suspected pneumonia. Data on sociodemographics and risk factors were also collected using a structured questionnaire. Blood, Chocolate, and Mac Conkey agar plates (Oxoid, Hampshire, UK) were used to grow the isolates. The isolated colonies were identified based on Gram stain, colony morphology, pigmentation, hemolysis, and biochemical tests. The antimicrobial susceptibility test was performed using the modified Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method. The analysis was performed using SPSS version 22 and p-value < 0.05 with corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI) was considered statistically significant. Results. Out of the 252 samples, 110 (43.7%) were positive for various bacterial species. The predominant bacterial species were Klebsiella pneumoniae (n=26, 23.6 %) followed by Streptococcus pneumoniae (n=17, 15.5 %), Escherichia coli (n=16, 14.5%), Klebsiella spp. (n=15, 13.6%), Staphylococcus aureus (n=9, 8.2%), Enterobacter spp. (n=7, 6.3%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (4, n=3.6%), Proteus spp. (n=4, 3.6%), Citrobacter freundii (n=7, 6.3%), Streptococcus pyogenes (3, 2.7%), and Haemophilus influenzae (n=2, 1.8%). Young age (18-29), recent CD4+ count less than 350 cells/mL, alcohol consumption, and HIV WHO stage II showed significant association with the occurrence of bacterial pneumonia. Resistance to penicillin, co-trimoxazole, and tetracycline was observed in 81.8%, 39.8%, and 24.5% of the isolates, respectively. Conclusions. The problem of pneumonia among HIV patients was significant in the study area. The high prevalence of drug-resistant bacteria isolated from the patient’s samples possesses a health risk in immunocompromised HIV patients. There is a need to strengthen and expand culture and susceptibility procedures for the administration of appropriate therapy to improve patients management and care which may aid in decreasing the mortality.

scholarly journals Effect of blue laser on viability of Proteus mirabilis

2021 ◽  
pp. 1438-1446
Author(s):  
Mawada M. Funjan
Keyword(s):  
Exposure Time ◽  
Proteus Mirabilis ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Test System ◽  
Blue Laser ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Biochemical Tests ◽  
Burn Wounds ◽  
Antibiotic Susceptibility Test

The usage of blue laser has been considered as a therapeutic approach to prohibit the viability of bacterial species, but there is no agreement about optimum parameters to be used. The aim of this project is to study the influence of blue laser (450 nm) on the viability of the gram-negative bacteria  Proteus mirabilis isolated from burn wounds, using different exposure times (i.e. doses) in vitro. Seventy swab samples were collected from burn wounds of patients admitted to the burns unit in AL-Yarmouk teaching hospital in Baghdad, during the period from June to August 2019. The Bacteria were isolated and identified depending on their culture characteristics, biochemical tests, gram staining, and morphology, being finally confirmed by API 20E Test System. By using the disk diffusion method, susceptibility of the isolates to 12 different antibiotics was examined. One isolate of P. mirabilis was elected according to susceptibility to all antibiotics used.  To prepare bacterial solution, P. mirabilis was mixed with normal saline solution. Dilution of 10-6 cell/ml for p. mirabilis was selected from other serial dilutions. A number of colonies and colony forming units (CFUs/ml) were achieved and correlated to controls.  P. mirabilis was irradiated by blue diode laser (450 nm, 500mw) and exposed to different doses (24, 48, 72, 96, 120J/cm2) corresponding to respective exposure times (4, 8,12,16,20 minutes). The results of antibiotic susceptibility test indicate that the entire isolates of P. mirabilis were multidrug resistant. With the increase in laser dose (exposure times), the number of colonies and  CFUs/ml were reduced, reaching a highest inhibition in CFU/ml  at exposure time of  20 minutes, i.e. a dose of 120J/cm2 , with  irradiance of 0.1 watt/ cm2. No significant reduction was recorded in CFU/ml   at exposure time of 4 min (a dose of 24J/cm2). As a conclusion, the blue laser irradiation at wavelength of 450 nm and 500mw had antibacterial effects on P. mirabilis isolated from burn wounds with irradiance of 0.1watt/cm2 in vitro, as evidenced by the effective reduction in the viability of bacteria at a dose of 120J/cm2 corresponding to exposure time of 20 minutes.

Antibiotics resistance profile of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from selected surfaces in a university campus

2020 ◽  
Vol 15 (1) ◽  
pp. 21-27
Author(s):  
Campus. Bamidele Tolulope Odumosu ◽  
Amina Oluwatoyin Adelowotan ◽  
Olanike Maria Buraimoh ◽  
Ighodaro Grace Oghogho
Keyword(s):  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Virulence Genes ◽  
Total Sample ◽  
Health Concern ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Resistant Bacteria ◽  
Antibiotics Resistance ◽  
Resistance Profile ◽  
Antibiotic Susceptibility Test ◽  
Potential Reservoir

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria are serious public health concern. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections are steadily increasing but the potential reservoir and risk in the environment are poorly investigated. A total of 284 environmental swabs were collected from 2 faculties of the University and screened for the presence of S. aureus by standard biochemical assays, 16S rRNA and S. aureus nuc gene amplification for the molecular identification of the isolates. Antibiotic susceptibility test was done by disc diffusion method while the detection of resistance and virulence genes were investigated by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). Of the total sample collected, 190 (47.50%) S. aureus were recovered of which > 80% were resistant to more than 3 antibiotics. Considerable resistance profile was observed among the isolates and there were positive amplifications for aph (3’)-IIIa and aac (6’)-Ie-aph (2’), ermB tetL and tetK genes. There was no amplification for the investigated virulence genes among the isolates. High presence of multiply resistant S. aureus from environmental surfaces suggests the campus environment is a potential reservoir of S. aureus infection Keywords: Antimicrobial Resistance, Staphylococcus aureus, virulence, antibiotics.

scholarly journals Antimicrobial activity of Guava tree (Psidium Guajava) leaf extract and selected Commercial Antibiotics on Bacterial isolates from Kisubi Hospital

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
David Serunjogi ◽  
Kizito Muwonge
Keyword(s):  
Antimicrobial Activity ◽  
Psidium Guajava ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Resistant Bacteria ◽  
Drug Resistant ◽  
Leaf Extracts ◽  
Drug Resistant Bacteria ◽  
The World ◽  
Guava Leaf ◽  
Tree Leaf

Background: Plant species such as the guava have been used in Uganda and elsewhere in the world to treat some of the medical conditions associated with bacteria, this is due to the increased number of drug resistant bacteria in the world. In this study, the antimicrobial activity of guava leaf extracts against some of the disease causing bacteria isolated from Kisubi hospital in Uganda is discussed. Methods: The guava leafs were collected from a plantation near Zika forest in Uganda (0°7′27″N 32°31′32″E / 0.12417°N 32.52556°E / 0.12417; 32.52556) and samples were put in a bag and transferred to the university laboratory where they were identified. The extracts were obtained by maceration using distilled water, 30%, 50% and 70 % methanol as the extraction solvents. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was conducted using the disc diffusion method. Results: Gram-negative Escherichia coli was sensitive to the plant extract and synthetic commercial drugs such as trimethoprim-sulfamethozole, ciprofloxacin, and Gentamicin. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was resistant to all drugs. Streptococcus pneumonia and Staphylococcus aureus were all sensitive to the plant extracts with measurable inhibition zones. Conclusion: The Guava tree leaf crude extracts have antimicrobial activity against drug-resistant bacteria. More studies should be carried out to know the potency and the concentration of different plant origin extracts.

scholarly journals Prevalence of carbapenemase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae at a tertiary care hospital in Kathmandu, Nepal

2021 ◽  
Vol 49 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Susil Pyakurel ◽  
Mehraj Ansari ◽  
Smriti Kattel ◽  
Ganesh Rai ◽  
Prasha Shrestha ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Bacterial Infections ◽  
Tertiary Care Hospital ◽  
Tertiary Care ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Clinical Samples ◽  
Resistant Bacteria ◽  
Growth Media ◽  
Care Hospital ◽  
Drug Resistant ◽  
Biochemical Tests

Abstract Aim Although carbapenem is the last-resort drug for treating drug-resistant Gram-negative bacterial infections, prevalence of carbapenem-resistant bacteria has substantially increased worldwide owing to irrational use of antibiotics particularly in developing countries like Nepal.  Therefore, this study was aimed to determine the prevalence of carbapenemase-producing K. pneumoniae and to detect the carbapenemase genes (blaNDM-2 and blaOXA-48) in at a tertiary care hospital in Nepal. Materials and methods A hospital-based cross-sectional study was carried out from June 2018 to January 2019 at the Microbiology Laboratory of Annapurna Neurological Institute and Allied Sciences, Kathmandu, Nepal. Different clinical samples were collected and cultured in appropriate growth media. Biochemical tests were performed for the identification of K. pneumoniae. Antibiotic susceptibility testing (AST) was performed by the Kirby–Bauer disc diffusion method. The modified Hodge test (MHT) was performed to detect carbapenemase producers. The plasmid was extracted by the modified alkaline hydrolysis method. Carbapenemase-producing K. pneumoniae were further confirmed by detecting blaNDM-2 and blaOXA-48 genes by PCR using specific forward and reverse primers followed by gel electrophoresis. Results Out of the total 720 samples, 38.9% (280/720) were culture positive. K. pneumoniae was the most predominant isolate 31.4% (88/280). Of 88 K. pneumoniae isolates, 56.8% (50/88) were multi-drug resistant (MDR), and 51.1% (45/88) were MHT positive. Colistin showed the highest sensitivity (100%; 88/88), followed by tigecycline (86.4%; 76/88). blaNDM-2 and blaOXA-48 genes were detected in 24.4% (11/45) and 15.5% (7/45) of carbapenemase-producing K. pneumoniae isolates, respectively. Conclusion The rate of MDR and carbapenemase production was high in the K. pneumoniae isolates. Colistin and tigecycline could be the drug of choice for the empirical treatments of MDR and carbapenemase-producing K. pneumoniae. Our study provides a better understanding of antibiotic resistance threat and enables physicians to select the most appropriate antibiotics.

scholarly journals ANTIBACTERIAL PHOTODYNAMIC THERAPEUTIC STUDIES OF METALLATED PORPHYRIN AGAINST CHRONIC WOUND COLONISING BACTERIAL ISOLATES

2021 ◽  
Vol 46 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
O. B Daramola ◽  
A. A Olajide ◽  
N Torimiro ◽  
R. C George
Keyword(s):  
Escherichia Coli ◽  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Chronic Wound ◽  
Antimicrobial Activities ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
In Vitro Toxicity ◽  
Resistant Bacteria ◽  
Drug Resistant ◽  
Bacterial Strains

Wound infections have become life threatening as a result of treatment failures caused by multi-drug resistant pathogens. The search for newer compounds potent against antibiotic resistant bacteria associated with wounds is crucial. Hence this study investigated the application of antibacterial photodynamic therapy using meso tetra-(4-phenyl) porphyrin (TPP), metallated with zinc, tin and silver (ZnTPP, SnTPP and AgTPP), meso tetra-(4-sulphonatephenyl) porphyrin (TPPS) and the corresponding metallo meso tetra-(4-sulphonatephenyl) porphyrin (MTPPS) as photosensitizers. The in-vitro toxicity and photo-toxicity properties on four chronic wound colonizing multi-drug resistant bacterial strains: Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella sp., Proteus sp., and Escherichia coli were assessed using agar well diffusion method. Photo-toxicity of the compounds was investigated using 100 Watt tungsten lamp. Inhibitory activity of porphyrins tested against these bacterial strains showed Staphylococcus aureus to have both lowest (11±0.0 mm) and highest (33±1.1 mm) susceptibility to SnTPPS and ZnTPPS respectively. The sequence of data also showed appreciable improvement in the antimicrobial activities of five metalloporphyrins (SnTPP, AgTPP, ZnTPPS, SnTPPS and AgTPPS) exposed to light rays than when tested against bacterial strains in dark condition. ZnTPPS exhibited the best activity with improved photo-toxic activities against all bacterial strains (Staphylococcus aureus 33±1.1 mm, Klebsiella sp. 32±0.7 mm, Proteus sp. 28±0.7 mm and Escherichia coli 30±1.4 mm) examined in this study.

scholarly journals Prevalence of aerobic pathogenic bacteria isolated from patients with burn infection and their antimicrobial susceptibility patterns in Al-Najaf City, Iraq- a three-year cross-sectional study.

F1000Research ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 7 ◽  
pp. 1157 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ahmed Abduljabbar Jaloob Aljanaby ◽  
Israa Abduljabbar Jaloob Aljanaby
Keyword(s):  
Pseudomonas Aeruginosa ◽  
Cross Sectional Study ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Resistant Bacteria ◽  
Drug Resistant ◽  
Bacterial Isolates ◽  
Sectional Study ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Extended Spectrum ◽  
Drug Resistant Bacteria

Background: Burn infections are one of the most common serious illnesses caused by pathogens, mainly by both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. The aim of this study was to detect of the prevalence of multi-drug resistant and extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing (ESBL) bacteria isolated from inpatients with burn infection and the antimicrobials sensitivity patterns of all bacterial isolates during three years. Methods: This cross-sectional study was performed in Al-Najaf Central Hospital in Al-Najaf City, Iraq from January 2015 to December 2017. A total of 295 burns swabs were collected from hospitalized patients with burn infection. All grown bacterial isolates were identified by standardized microbiological tests. Antimicrobials susceptibility testing was done using the disc diffusion method. Multi-drug, extensive-drug and pan-drug resistant bacteria and extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing bacteria were determined according to standardized methods and guidelines. Results: Of the 295 burn swabs, 513 different bacteria strains were isolated. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was the most common bacteria with 142 isolates (27.6%) followed by methicillin resistance Staphylococcus aureus 106 isolates (20.6%), while Staphylococcus typhi was the least common bacteria with only 17 isolates (3.3%). 323 (63%) different bacterial strains were isolated from patients who stayed in hospital for 15 days. Most bacterial isolates were resistant to most antimicrobials with high percentages. Out of the 513 bacterial isolates; only 33 isolates (6.4%) were resistant to imipenem 10µg and 464 isolates (90.4%) were multi-drug resistant, 20 isolates (14%) were extensive-drug resistant and 17 isolates (3.3%) were pan-drug resistant. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was the most common ESBL-producing bacteria (51 isolates-35.9%). Conclusions: There was a high prevalence of multi-drug resistant bacteria in burn infection in Al-Najaf hospital. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was the most common multi-drug resistant bacteria, and the most common of ESBL bacteria causing burn infection over the three years.

scholarly journals Antagonistic Activity of Bacteriocins Produced by Lactobacillus Isolates against Multidrug Resistant Pathogens

2021 ◽  
pp. 76-87
Author(s):  
Asma Bashir ◽  
Kashif Ali
Keyword(s):  
Lactobacillus Reuteri ◽  
Raw Milk ◽  
Antagonistic Activity ◽  
Antagonistic Effect ◽  
Proteinase K ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Multi Drug Resistance ◽  
Resistant Bacteria ◽  
Drug Resistant ◽  
Lactobacillus Spp

Background: Multi drug-resistance pose a great threat to public health and are responsible for various life-threatening ailments. There is a crucial need to control the outbreaks by finding alternatives to the conventional drugs available. Over the last few years, the usage of probiotics, including Lactobacillus spp. and their bacteriocins has gained much attention to ward off various diseases. Methods: This study was focused on characterizing bacteriocins extracted from Lactobacillus spp. and assessing their antagonistic effect against multi-drug resistant bacteria. Fifteen Lactobacillus spp. were isolated and identified from Pakistani dairy and fermented products (raw milk, cheese, butter milk, pickle and yoghurt). All the isolates were preliminarily screened by the antagonism method of agar well diffusion method, and the bacteriocins were isolated by ammonium sulphate method. Afterwards, to evaluate the release of bacteriocin in liquid medium, the Cell-Free Supernatant Fluid (CFSF) of the best producer strains were tested by agar well diffusion assay. To assess the thermostability of the bacteriocins, they were subjected to temperatures of 40ᴼC, 60ᴼC, 80ᴼC and 100ᴼC. Results: The study allowed the selection of five bacteriocin producing strains Lactobacillus acidophilus KAL1, Lactobacillus casei KAL3, Lactobacillus plantarum KAL5, Lactobacillus reuteri KAL6 and Lactobacillus spp. delbrukei KAL7, endowed with the strongest and broadest inhibitory ability against both Gram-positive (Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative (Pseudomonas aeruginosa) bacteria. Bacteriocins isolated were significantly thermostable with activity at 80ᴼC (30, 20 min) respectively. Moreover, all the bacteriocins were considerably stable at a range of pH (4–8) but all the activity was eliminated against proteolytic enzyme Proteinase K. Conclusion: From this study, it was concluded that bacteriocin extracts from five isolated Lactobacillus spp. can be considered a preferable candidate against multi-drug resistant pathogens. These partially purified bacteriocins should be further processed to attain purified product that could be useful for further studies for the control of pathogens, food spoilage and preservation purposes.

scholarly journals Isolation of Four Lytic Phages Infecting Klebsiella pneumoniae K22 Clinical Isolates from Spain

2020 ◽  
Vol 21 (2) ◽  
pp. 425 ◽  
Author(s):  
Pilar Domingo-Calap ◽  
Beatriz Beamud ◽  
Justine Vienne ◽  
Fernando González-Candelas ◽  
Rafael Sanjuán
Keyword(s):  
Klebsiella Pneumoniae ◽  
Host Specificity ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Clinical Isolates ◽  
Resistant Bacteria ◽  
Drug Resistant ◽  
Capsular Type ◽  
Full Genome Sequencing ◽  
Promising Alternative ◽  
Drug Resistant Bacteria

The emergence of multi-drug-resistant bacteria represents a major public-health threat. Phages constitute a promising alternative to chemical antibiotics due to their high host specificity, abundance in nature, and evolvability. However, phage host specificity means that highly diverse bacterial species are particularly difficult to target for phage therapy. This is the case of Klebsiella pneumoniae, which presents a hypervariable extracellular matrix capsule exhibiting dozens of variants. Here, we report four novel phages infecting K. pneumoniae capsular type K22 which were isolated from environmental samples in Valencia, Spain. Full genome sequencing showed that these phages belong to the Podoviridae family and encode putative depolymerases that allow digestion of specific K22 K. pneumoniae capsules. Our results confirm the capsular type-specificity of K. pneumoniae phages, as indicated by their narrow infectivity in a panel of K. pneumoniae clinical isolates. Nonetheless, this work represents a step forward in the characterization of phage diversity, which may culminate in the future use of large panels of phages for typing and/or for combating multi-drug-resistant K. pneumoniae.

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