scholarly journals ESSENTIAL OILS AND METHYLGLYOXAL: A POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT FOR ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANT BACTERIAL INFECTIONS

2016 ◽  
Vol 8 (9) ◽  
pp. 107
Author(s):  
Erin Cieslak ◽  
James P. Mack ◽  
Albert Rojtman
Keyword(s):  
Essential Oil ◽  
Essential Oils ◽  
Alternative Treatment ◽  
Bacterial Infections ◽  
Cost Effective ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Antibiotic Resistant ◽  
Medicinal Properties

<p><strong>Objective: </strong>Essential oils are of significant interest in today’s world of healthcare because these compounds have a variety of medicinal properties. In this study, we evaluated the <em>in vitro</em> antibiotic role of essential oils as a possible alternative treatment in combatting Methicillin-resistant <em>Staphylococcus aureus</em> (MRSA).</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>In conjunction with carrier oils, three essential oils (cassia, cinnamon bark, and thyme), as well as methylglyoxal were tested on MRSA using the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>The minimum inhibitory concentration of each tested essential oil and methylglyoxal in carrier oil was determined to be 25% essential oil and 75% carrier oil mixture. This concentration worked much more effectively than the standard antibiotic, vancomycin, which is currently used to treat MRSA infections.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>Antibacterial emollients made from naturally occurring products like essential oils can be cost-effective alternatives to antibiotics. The results of this research show that these emollients are more effective against MRSA than standard antibiotics in cell culture.</p>

scholarly journals Komposisi Minyak Atsiri dan Aktivitas Antimikroba Rimpang Temu Putih dan Jahe Gajah sebagai Fitobiotik Pakan Unggas

2019 ◽  
Vol 6 (2) ◽  
pp. 181
Author(s):  
Laila Nur Rohma ◽  
Laila Nur Rohma ◽  
Osfar Sjofjan ◽  
M. Halim Natsir
Keyword(s):  
Escherichia Coli ◽  
Antimicrobial Activity ◽  
Essential Oil ◽  
Essential Oils ◽  
Feed Additives ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Disc Diffusion ◽  
Activity Test ◽  
Main Component

ABSTRAK                                                                        Imbuhan pakan unggas dapat berasal dari bahan herbal yang mengandung berbagai komponen aktif yang bermanfaat bagi pertumbuhan ternak.Temu putih dan jahe gajah dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai imbuhan pakan karena mengandung minyak atsiri yang dapat berperan sebagai agen antibakteri. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui komponen penyusun minyak atsiri dan aktivitas antimikroba pada rimpang temu putih dan jahe gajah. Penelitian dilakukan dengan percobaan in vitro menggunakan temu putih dan jahe gajah yang diolah menjadi bentuk ekstrak minyak atsiri temu putih dan jahe gajah sebagai materi uji komposisi penyusun minyak atsiri serta bentuktepung dan enkapsulasi sebagai materi uji aktivitas antimikroba. Komposisi minyak atsiri temu putih terdiri dari lima komponen penyusun dengan cis-1,7-octadien-3-yl acetat sebagai komponen utama. Komposisi minyak atsiri jahe gajah terdiri dari tujuh komponen dan benzene,1-(1,5-dimethyl-4-hexenyl)-4-methyl-(CAS) ar-curcumene sebagai komponen utama. Minyak atsiri yang terkandung pada temu putih dan jahe gajah mempunyai peran dalam menghambat mikroba. Uji komposisi penyusun minyak atsiri menggunakan alat GC-MS dan uji aktivitas antimikroba menggunakan metode disc diffusion dan. Hasil dari uji aktivitas antimikroba menunjukkan bahwa temu putih dan jahe gajah dalam bentuk tepung dan enkapsulasi memiliki perbedaan yang sangat nyata (P<0,01) terhadap aktivitas antimikroba pada bakteri asam laktat, Escherichia coli dan Salmonella sp. Campuran temu putih dan jahe gajah (1:1) menunjukkan kemampuan terbaik dalam menghambat pertumbuhan bakteri patogen dengan diameter zona hambat 5,70±0,14 mm  (Escherichia coli) dan 6,88±0,45 mm (Salmonella sp.).Kata Kunci : antimikroba, fitobiotik, jahe gajah, minyak atsiri, temu putihABSTRACTThe poultry feed additives can contain herbal ingredients that contain various beneficial components for livestock growth. White turmeric and giant ginger can be used as feed additives because they contain essential oils that can be used as antibacterial agents. This study aims to determine the constituent components of essential oils and antimicrobial activity in white turmeric and giant ginger rhizomes. The study was carried out by in vitro experiments using white turmeric and giant ginger which were processed into the form of essential oil extract as material for the composition of essential oils test, and powder and encapsulation form as antimicrobial activity test material. The composition of essential oils of white turmeric consists of five constituent components with cis-1,7-octadien-3-yl acetate as the main component. The composition of giant ginger essential oil consists of seven components with benzene, 1- (1,5-dimethyl-4-hexenyl) -4-methyl- (CAS) ar-curcumene as the main component. Essential oils contained in the white turmeric and giant ginger have a role in inhibiting microbes. The composition of the essential oil tested using GC-MS and the antimicrobial activity test used the disc diffusion method. The results of the antimicrobial activity test showed that white turmeric and giant ginger in powder and encapsulation form had significant differences (P <0.01) on antimicrobial activity in lactic acid bacteria, Escherichia coli and Salmonella sp. The mixture of white turmeric and giant ginger (1: 1) showed the best ability to inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria with inhibitory zone diameters of 5.70 ± 0.14 mm (Escherichia coli) and 6.88 ± 0.45 mm (Salmonella sp.).Keywords: antimicrobial, essential oil, giant ginger, phytobiotic, white turmeric

scholarly journals USING ESSENTIAL OILS TO COMBAT THE THREAT OF MULTI-DRUG RESISTANT BACTERIA, PSEUDOMONAS AERUGINOSA

2016 ◽  
Vol 8 (12) ◽  
pp. 180 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jenies Grullon ◽  
James P. Mack ◽  
Albert Rojtman
Keyword(s):  
Pseudomonas Aeruginosa ◽  
Essential Oils ◽  
Alternative Treatment ◽  
Scientific Discovery ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Resistant Bacteria ◽  
Human Beings ◽  
Disk Diffusion Method ◽  
Cinnamon Bark

<div class="WordSection1"><p><strong>Objective: </strong>The development of antibiotics was a revolutionary scientific discovery and medical advancement that greatly extended the life expectancy of mankind. Through less than 100 y of using antibiotics to treat infectious bacteria, some of these highly adaptive organisms have developed resistance to the drugs. The healthcare field is greatly concerned with the threat of many common infections that have been considered treatable for decades, regaining its ability to be severely fatal; thus, making alternative treatments currently in high demand. This study concentrated on investigating an alternative treatment for a specific gram-negative bacterium, <em>Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa)</em>, a resistance-gaining bacteria that commonly infects hospitalized patients with weakened immune systems and/or open wounds.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>Prior to the age of modern medicine, human beings relied on nature for medicinal treatments. In our research, we focused on determining the <em>in vitro </em>efficacy of using the essential oils, cassia and cinnamon bark, their major component, cinnamaldehyde, as well as the major component of manuka honey, methylglyoxal, as an alternative treatment against <em>P. aeruginosa</em> We tested cassia, cinnamon bark, cinnamaldehyde, and methylglyoxal using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method; the diameter of the zone of inhibition for each treated bacterial sample was measured and compared with the standard antibiotic treatments, tobramycin, and amikacin.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>This study showed that the selected essential oils, cinnamaldehyde, and methylglyoxal were as effective or better in inhibiting the growth of <em>P. aeruginosa </em>compared to the standard aminoglycoside antibiotics.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>The tested essential oils, cinnamaldehyde, and methylglyoxal may be useful as an alternative treatment for infections caused by <em>P. aeruginosa</em> and may also provide communities where antibiotics are not readily available, a cost-effective way to treat this infectious disease.</p></div>

scholarly journals EVALUATION OF ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF ESSENTIAL OIL OF CINNAMOMUM ZEYLANICUM, EUGENIA CARYOPHYLLATA, AND ROSMARINUS OFFICINALIS AGAINST STREPTOCOCCUS ORALIS

2017 ◽  
Vol 10 (5) ◽  
pp. 410 ◽  
Author(s):  
Samira Hsaine ◽  
Reda Charof ◽  
Khadija Ounine
Keyword(s):  
Antibacterial Activity ◽  
Essential Oil ◽  
Essential Oils ◽  
Rosmarinus Officinalis ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Cinnamomum Zeylanicum ◽  
Streptococcus Oralis ◽  
In Vitro Antibacterial Activity ◽  
Broth Dilution

Objective: Streptococcus oralis plays an important role in the biofilm formation of dental plaque and the occurrence of periodontal disease. Thepresent study was conducted to evaluate in vitro antibacterial activity of three essential oils, namely, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Eugenia caryophyllata,and Rosmarinus officinalis against S. oralis.Methods: The antibacterial activity of essential oils was investigated by diffusion method using sterile discs (or aromatograms). The minimuminhibitory concentration (MIC) of essential oils showing important antibacterial activity was measured using the broth dilution method.Results: Evaluation of the antibacterial activity of three essential oils as determined by the aromatogram technique showed that the essential oilof R. officinalis had no effect on S. oralis, while the latter was extremely sensitive to the other two essential oils, but with a higher efficiency of theessential oil of C. zeylanicum (42 mm diameter) than E. caryophyllata (20 mm diameter). Similarly, the MIC and minimum bactericidal concentration(MBC) were higher for the essential oil of C. zeylanicum than the essential oil of E. caryophyllata. The MBC/MIC ratio is of the order of 2. The essentialoils studied therefore appear to exert bactericidal activity against S. oralis.Conclusion: The findings suggest that essential oils of C. zeylanicum and E. caryophyllata may be used as an alternative to synthetic antibiotics.Keywords: Essential oil, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Eugenia caryophyllata, Rosmarinus officinalis, Antimicrobial activity, Streptococcus oralis.

scholarly journals In VitroAntimicrobial Activity of Essential Oil ofThymus schimperi,Matricaria chamomilla,Eucalyptus globulus, andRosmarinus officinalis

2016 ◽  
Vol 2016 ◽  
pp. 1-8 ◽  
Author(s):  
Awol Mekonnen ◽  
Berhanu Yitayew ◽  
Alemnesh Tesema ◽  
Solomon Taddese
Keyword(s):  
Antimicrobial Activity ◽  
Minimum Inhibitory Concentration ◽  
Essential Oil ◽  
Essential Oils ◽  
Inhibitory Concentration ◽  
Antimicrobial Activities ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Drug Preparation ◽  
Bacteria And Fungi

In this study, thein vitroantimicrobial activities of four plant essential oils (T. schimperi,E. globulus,R. officinalis, andM. Chamomilla) were evaluated against bacteria and fungi. The studies were carried out using agar diffusion method for screening the most effective essential oils and agar dilution to determine minimum inhibitory concentration of the essential oils. Results of this study revealed that essential oils ofT. schimperi,E. globulus, andR. officinaliswere active against bacteria and some fungi. The antimicrobial effect ofM. chamomillawas found to be weaker and did not show any antimicrobial activity. The minimum inhibitory concentration values ofT. schimperiwere<15.75 mg/mL for most of the bacteria and fungi used in this study. The minimum inhibitory concentration values of the other essential oils were in the range of 15.75–36.33 mg/mL against tested bacteria. This study highlighted the antimicrobial activity of the essential oil ofE. globulus,M. chamomilla,T. Schimperi, andR. officinalis. The results indicated thatT. schimperihave shown strong antimicrobial activity which could be potential candidates for preparation of antimicrobial drug preparation.

CHEMICAL PROFILING OF BUCHANANIA LANZAN SPRENG ESSENTIAL OIL AND ITS BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES

2020 ◽  
pp. 103-108
Author(s):  
AJITH S ◽  
KRISHNA V ◽  
RAVI KUMAR S ◽  
VINAY KUMAR NM
Keyword(s):  
Antioxidant Activity ◽  
Antibacterial Activity ◽  
Molecular Docking ◽  
Essential Oil ◽  
Essential Oils ◽  
Bioactive Compounds ◽  
Biological Activities ◽  
Dna Gyrase ◽  
Diffusion Method

Objective: The present study was designed to evaluate the chemical composition of the essential oil of Buchanania lanzan Spreng extracted from the seeds and to evaluate in vitro antimicrobial antioxidants and molecular docking studies of the major bioactive compounds of essential oil. Methods: The essential oil was obtained by hydrodistillation of the B. lanzan seeds and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Antibacterial activity was evaluated against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Vibrio cholerae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus pneumoniae clinical isolates by disk diffusion method and resazurin assay determined the minimum inhibitory concentration. The in vitro antioxidant activity was determined by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) scavenging assay; the essential oil major bioactive compounds are Androstan-3-ol, Campesterol, and γ-Sitosterol were docked against bacterial protein DNA gyrase. Results: GC-MS analysis exhibited the presence of 19 bioactive compounds. The essential oil showed that significant antibacterial activity was noticed against V. cholerae and S. typhi with the highest zone of inhibition 15.67–1.20 and 13.83–0.33, respectively. Antioxidant activity in DPPH and H2O2 scavenging assays with IC50 values of 134.23 and 191.24, respectively. The molecular docking of Androstan-3-ol and γ-Sitosterol with bacterial DNA gyrase unveiled a good binding affinity of −6.4 kcal/mol and −6.3 kcal/ mol, respectively. Conclusion: It could be concluded that the essential oils potential sources of antibacterial, antioxidant activities, and molecular docking of bioactive components. The results of this study provide partial scientific support for the traditional application of essential oils to cure diarrhea and also major bioactive compounds responsible for important biological activities.

Chemical composition, acetylcholine esterase and Anti-bacterial activities of essential oils of Elaeosilenum thapsioides (Desf.) Maire from Algeria

2021 ◽  
Vol 21 ◽  
Author(s):  
Zakaria Barbeche ◽  
Hocine Laouer ◽  
Ramazan Erenler ◽  
Mohamed Hajji ◽  
Guido Flamini ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Essential Oil ◽  
Essential Oils ◽  
Inhibitory Activity ◽  
Research Work ◽  
Chemical Characterization ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Aerial Parts ◽  
Ache Inhibitory Activity

Background: Traditionally, The Algerian medicinal plant Elaeosilenum thapsioides have been used for many diseases. Objective: The present research work is aimed to explore the chemical and biological characterization of essential oil of, Elaeoselinum thapsioides (Desf.) Maire. Methods : The essential oils were obtained by hydrodistillation of different Elaeosilenum thapsioides (Apiaceae) aerial parts samples collected from two different regions (Mahouane and Megres) Setif, Eastern Algeria. The chemical characterization of the obtained essential oils was investigated in the present work for the first time by GC and GC-MS. Besides, they were evaluated for their in-vitro acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory activity whose enzyme hyperactivity is involved in Alzheimer’s disease. Using Ellman’s spectrophotometric method, additionally, their in-vitro antimicrobial activity was assessed by the disc diffusion method. Both activities were performed at various oil concentrations. Results: The GC/MS analysis of the aerial parts (leaves, stems, flowers, and seeds) essential oils of E. thapsioides revealed the presence of dominant compounds and others in small quantities, identifying 47 chemical molecules. Monoterpene hydrocarbons were the main components, ranging from 72.78 % to 99.13 %. Oxygenated monoterpenes and oxygenated sesquiterpenes ranged between (1.37 % -17.25 %) and (0.12 % -3.53 %) in leaves and stem essential oils. Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons were present in small to large quantities in the essential oils of both populations, with contents ranging from 0.69 % to 13.44 %. For the Isothiocyanates, their presence was recorded in leaves and stem essential oils from Mahouane and Merges with 9.73 % and 3.72 %, consecutively. Indeed, the essential oil of the Mahouane stem showed the highest AChE inhibitory activity among all the tested essential oils. Whereas the highest antibacterial activity was shown by the essential oil obtained from Megres leaves against Bacillus cereus ATCC 11778. Conclusion: The oils exhibited a moderate inhibitory activity in both activities.

scholarly journals In vitro antibacterial activity of several plant extracts and essential oils against Brucella melitensis

2014 ◽  
Vol 60 (1) ◽  
pp. 29-38
Author(s):  
Mazen Safi ◽  
Ayman Al-Mariri
Keyword(s):  
Medicinal Plants ◽  
Essential Oils ◽  
Plant Extract ◽  
Plant Extracts ◽  
Brucella Melitensis ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Resistant Bacteria ◽  
Antibiotic Resistant ◽  
Fluid Medium

Summary Medicinal plants are considered to be new resources for the production of agents that could act as alternatives to antibiotics in the treatment of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of some plants native to Syria in the treatment of brucellosis. In vitro activities of some essential oils and plant extracts of some medicinal plants against 89 Brucella melitensis isolates was determined by disc diffusion method at a concentration of 5%. The microdilution assay in the fluid medium was used to determine the MICs of essential oils and plant extracts. Among the evaluated herbs, only Thymus syriacus and Cinnamomum zeylanicum essential oils and Laurus nobilis plant extract showed a high activity against B. melitensis strains. Thus, minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC50) values for T. syriacus, C. zeylanicum, and L. nobilis against B. melitensis were 6.25, 3.125 and 6.25 μl/ml, respectively. Among studied essential oils and plant extracts, T. syriacus and C. zeylanicum essential oils, and L. nobilis plant extract were the most effective ones. Moreover, T. syriacus - C. zeylanicum combination was more effective than use of each of them alone. Then, T. syriacus and C. zeylanicum essential oils and L. nobilis plant extract could act as bactericidal agents against B. melitensis.

scholarly journals The Chemical Compositions of Essential Oils Derived from Cryptocarya alba and Laurelia sempervirens Possess Antioxidant, Antibacterial and Antitumoral Activity Potential

Molecules ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 25 (23) ◽  
pp. 5600
Author(s):  
Jorge Touma ◽  
Myriam Navarro ◽  
Betsabet Sepúlveda ◽  
Alequis Pavon ◽  
Gino Corsini ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Essential Oil ◽  
Essential Oils ◽  
Antioxidant Capacity ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Natural Food ◽  
Antitumoral Activity ◽  
Chemical Compositions ◽  
Natural Medicine ◽  
Agar Disc

Cryptocarya alba (Peumo; CA) and Laurelia sempervirens (Laurel; LS) are herbs native to the Chilean highlands and have historically been used for medicinal purposes by the Huilliches people. In this work, the essential oils were extracted using hydrodistillation in Clevenger apparatus and analyzed by GC-MS to determine their composition. The antioxidant capacity (AC) was evaluated in vitro. The cytotoxicity was determined using cell line cultures both non tumoral and tumoral. The toxicity was determined using the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. The antimicrobial activity was evaluated against 52 bacteria using the agar disc diffusion method and the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were determined. The principal compounds found in C. alba essential oil (CA_EO) were α-terpineol (24.96%) and eucalyptol (21.63%) and were isazafrol (91.9%) in L. sempervirens essential oil (LS_EO). Both EOs showed antioxidant capacity in vitro. Both EO showed antibacterial activity against bacteria using. LS_EO showed more inhibitory effect on these cell lines respect to CA_EO. Both EOs showed toxicity against the nematode C.elegans at 3.12–50 mg/mL. The essential oils of CA and LS have an important bioactive potential in their antioxidant, antibacterial and cytotoxicity activity. Both essential oils could possibly be used in the field of natural medicine, natural food preservation, cosmetics, sanitation and plaguicides among others.

Comparative Study on the Antibacterial Properties of Nanoemulsion of Zataria multiflora Essential Oil Fortified with Cinnamaldehyde Against Common Foodborne Pathogens

2020 ◽  
Vol 10 (5) ◽  
pp. 631-641
Author(s):  
Shahnaz Soufi ◽  
Majid Aminzare ◽  
Hassan Hassanzad Azar ◽  
Koorosh Kamali
Keyword(s):  
Essential Oil ◽  
Essential Oils ◽  
Foodborne Pathogens ◽  
Salmonella Enteritidis ◽  
Antibacterial Properties ◽  
Antibacterial Activities ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Suitable Alternative ◽  
Zataria Multiflora

Background: Nowadays, the application of several and natural preservatives in small quantity is a more preferred approach. In this regard, one of the effective methods is the formation of nanoemulsion of essential oils. Objective: The objective of this study was to compare the in vitro antibacterial activities of cinnamaldehyde (CIN) and Zataria multiflora essential oil in conventional (ZEO), nanoemulsion (NZEO) and fortified nanoemulsion (NZEOC) forms against common foodborne pathogens. Methods: Firstly, the Zataria multiflora essential oil was analyzed by GC-MS. The nanoemulsion of Z. multiflora essential oil was then prepared alone and fortified with cinnamaldehyde. Finally, their antimicrobial activity against Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella enteritidis and Escherichia coli was evaluated. Results: Based on the results, carvacrol (36.62%) was found to be the most important compound of essential oil. In disc diffusion and micro-dilution methods, the addition of CIN to ZEO during nanoemulsion formation (NZEOC) showed more antibacterial activity when compared to the individual addition of NZEO and CIN (NZEO+CIN). However, according to the vapor phase diffusion method, nano-treatments exhibited less inhibitory effects than the other treatments. Conclusion: It can be concluded that the fortification of essential oils with their derived pure compounds during nanoemulsion formation, can be used as a suitable alternative to chemical antibacterial compounds in the food industry.

scholarly journals Antibacterial Activity of Essential Oil from Rosemytle Leaves (Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (Ait.) Hassk)

Molekul ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 15 (3) ◽  
pp. 158
Author(s):  
Salni Salni ◽  
Hanifa Marisa
Keyword(s):  
Antibacterial Activity ◽  
Essential Oil ◽  
Typhoid Fever ◽  
Ethyl Acetate ◽  
Essential Oils ◽  
Bacterial Infections ◽  
Ethanol Extract ◽  
Shigella Dysenteriae ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Rhodomyrtus Tomentosa

Rosemytle leaves (Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (Ait.) Hassk) have been used by society to treat various diseases related to bacterial infections, such as dysentery and typhoid fever caused by Shigella dysenteriae and Salmonella typhi, respectively. This study aimed to evaluate the antibacterial activity of essential oils from rosemytle leaves against both bacterias. Extraction was performed with a macerating device using n-hexane, ethyl acetate, and ethanol extracts, sequentially. This study used the agar diffusion method to test the antibacterial activity applied to the essential oils with concentrations of 1000, 500, 250, 125, 62.5, and 31.25 μg/mL. The antibacterial test results showed that n-hexane and ethyl acetate extracts were active against both bacterias while ethanol extract was not. Then, isolates N1 and E1 were produced respectively from n-hexane extract and ethyl acetate extract. The MIC values of both N1 and E1 for S. dysenteriae, and S. typhi were the same, namely 125 μg/mL. Isolate N1 was an essential oil containing menthol (59.60%), caryophyllene (25.77%), and cubenol (14.63%) while isolate E1 was an essential oil containing (73.93%), pentanone (8.30%), alpha calacorene (7.58%), and calacorene (3.78%). Rosemytle leaves have the potential to be developed as a drug to treat dysentery and typhoid fever.

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