scholarly journals Variation in Chemicals and Growth Parameters of Taşköprü Garlic

2020 ◽  
Vol 8 (4) ◽  
pp. 847-854
Author(s):  
Nezahat Turfan
Keyword(s):  
Amino Acid ◽  
Bioactive Compounds ◽  
Soluble Protein ◽  
Amylase Activity ◽  
Growth Parameters ◽  
Soluble Sugars ◽  
Total Phenolic ◽  
Glucose Content ◽  
Proline Amino Acid ◽  
Β Carotene

Main goals of the present study were (1) to initially investigate the nutrient contents and bioactive compounds in the bulb and cloves of garlic, and (2) to study the growth parameter after planting. Garlic bulbs were firstly separated into three categories as pickled, big and small, while the big garlic cloves were also classified into three categories as big, small and central. Secondly, the garlic samples were analyzed before planting for their element profile, proline, soluble protein, free amino acid, β-carotene, lycopene, total phenolic, soluble sugars, SOD and α-amylase activities. Finally, the growth parameters were measured using the cultivated cloves and the pickled bulbs. According to the result, the highest soluble protein, N, phenolic, lycopene and α amylase activity (97.06 mg, 2.58%, 971 mg, 0.368 mg and 38.13 EU, respectively) were recorded in the biggest cloves. The highest proline, amino acid, glucose content (93.84 µmol, 23.54 mg, 230.89 mg, respectively) and K, P, S, Mg, Mn, Fe and Zn (21940 ppm, 7577 ppm, 12200 ppm, 504 ppm, 38.1ppm, 377,7ppm and 44.5 ppm, respectively) were found in the pickled bulb. The maximum level of β-carotene (0.282 mg), Ca, Cl and Sr (11260ppm, 818.7ppm and 47.9 ppm) were determined in the small bulbs. Based on the growth parameters of seedlings, the highest value of shoot and root length (39.12 cm and 24.11 cm respectively), the fresh weight of shoot and root (5.29 g and 4.54 g respectively) and dry weight of shoot and root (1.70 g and 1.24 g respectively) were noted with the big cloves. The results of the current study have indicated that the pickled cloves have higher macro and micro nutrients, proline, amino acid and glucose, while the big cloves of garlic have higher proline, phenolic, N%, lycopene and amylase activity. It can be said that the big cloves showed good value for the five bioactive compounds, but the pickled exhibited good value for the macro and micro element and glucose.

scholarly journals Age-Related Changes of Some Chemical Components in the Leaves of Oriental Beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky.)

2019 ◽  
Vol 10 (2) ◽  
pp. 117-124
Author(s):  
Nezahat Turfan ◽  
Sezgin Ayan ◽  
Esra Nurten Yer ◽  
Halil Barış Özel
Keyword(s):  
Phenolic Compounds ◽  
Soluble Protein ◽  
Soluble Sugars ◽  
Total Soluble Protein ◽  
Total Phenolic ◽  
Total Chlorophyll ◽  
H2o2 Concentration ◽  
Total Soluble Sugars ◽  
Oriental Beech ◽  
Different Ages

Background and Purpose: This study presents the analysis of photosynthetic pigments, proline, total soluble protein, total amino acids, glucose, sucrose, total soluble sugars, total amount of phenolic compounds and flavonoids, malondialdehyde (MDA) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) concentration in the leaf samples collected from oriental beech trees, which are naturally spread in Kastamonu Province, Turkey, with differing ages, enzyme activities of ascorbate peroxidase (APX), catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD). Material and Methods: The research was carried out on oriental beech trees (Fagus orientalis L.) of different ages located at 1300 m high elevation in Ahlat Village of Kastamonu Province, Turkey. Oriental beech trees of different ages (≥25, ≥50, ≥100, ≥200 and ≥600 years-old) constituted the material of this study. In leaf samples taken from trees of different ages, photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll and carotenoid), proline, total soluble protein, total amino acid, glucose, sucrose, total soluble sugars, the amount of total phenolic compounds and flavonoids, MDA, H2O2 concentration, enzyme activities of APX, CAT and SOD, as well as the relationship between the total content of C, N and H elements and the tree ages were studied. Results: As a result of the research conducted, significant differences were determined in terms of chlorophyll, total phenolic compound, flavonoid, glucose, amounts of sucrose, nitrogenous compounds, proline, total soluble protein, MDA, H 2O2 concentrations, and the activities of APX, CAT and SOD in the leaves of oriental beech trees with differing ages. The highest content of chlorophyll a was found to be in the youngest age group of ≥25 years. Total chlorophyll is low in young trees and high in middle-aged, old and very old trees. According to the results obtained, it was concluded that the MDA and H2O2 concentrations in the trees did not vary depending on the age of trees only, but also on the genotype, environmental conditions and metabolic activities. It was concluded that the fact that the total chlorophyll, phenolic compounds and sucrose content in oriental beech trees are high and that MDA content is low could have an influence on the long life of ≥600 years-old oriental beech trees. Conclusions: The activity of photosynthesis is related to leaf characteristics more than the age of trees.

scholarly journals Nutritional Value and Bioactive Compounds in Andean Ancient Grains

Proceedings ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 53 (1) ◽  
pp. 1
Author(s):  
Ritva Repo-Carrasco-Valencia
Keyword(s):  
Amino Acid ◽  
Phenolic Compounds ◽  
Bioactive Compounds ◽  
Nutritional Value ◽  
Protein Quality ◽  
Nutritional Composition ◽  
Biologically Active ◽  
Total Phenolic ◽  
Lupinus Mutabilis ◽  
Very High

Quinoa (Cheopodium quinoa), kañiwa (Cheopodium pallidicaule), kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus) and tarwi (Lupinus mutabilis) are ancient crops from the Andean region of South America. Recently, interest in these crops has grown, and worldwide demand for them has increased considerably. The aim of this study was to study the bioactive compounds and nutritional compositions of different varieties/ecotypes of quinoa, kañiwa, kiwicha and tarwi. Proximate, mineral, dietary fibre, fatty acid and amino acid compositions were evaluated. The content of phenolic compounds, tocopherols and phytosterols, and the folic acid and antioxidant capacity, were determined as well. The protein content of the grains was between 13.00% and 20.00%. More important than protein quantity is protein quality, which is demonstrated by the composition of the amino acids. All analysed grains, and especially the kañiwa, had very high lysine content. This amino acid is especially important in vegetarian diets because it is the limiting amino acid in cereal protein. The content of the total phenolic compounds in the studied grains was 27–58 mg gallic acid/100 g of sample. In quinoa, the principal flavonoids found were quercetin and kaempferol, in kañiwa quercetin and isorhamnetin. In kiwicha, no detectable amounts of flavonoids were found. Plant sterols (phytosterols) were another group of biologically active compounds detected. Andean lupin, tarwi, is very rich in oil, which has a beneficial nutritional composition. In conclusion, all studied grains have a very high nutritional value, are interesting sources of bioactive compounds and could be used as ingredients in health-promoting functional foods.

scholarly journals Screening for drought tolerance in cultivars of the ornamental genusTagetes(Asteraceae)

PeerJ ◽  
2016 ◽  
Vol 4 ◽  
pp. e2133 ◽  
Author(s):  
Raluca Cicevan ◽  
Mohamad Al Hassan ◽  
Adriana F. Sestras ◽  
Jaime Prohens ◽  
Oscar Vicente ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Oxidative Stress ◽  
Drought Tolerance ◽  
Plant Growth ◽  
Growth Parameters ◽  
Soluble Sugars ◽  
Stem Length ◽  
Total Phenolic ◽  
Total Soluble Sugars ◽  
Drought Tolerant ◽  
Components Analysis

Drought tolerance was evaluated in twelve cultivars of three ornamentalTagetesspecies (T. patula,T. tenuifoliaandT. erecta). A stress treatment was performed by completely stopping watering of plants maintained in controlled greenhouse conditions. After three weeks, several plant growth parameters (stem length (SL), fresh weight (FW) and water content (WC)), photosynthetic pigments (chlorophylls and carotenoids (Car)), osmolytes (proline (Pro), glycine betaine (GB) and total soluble sugars (TSS)), an oxidative stress maker (malondialdehyde (MDA)) and antioxidants (total phenolic compounds (TPC) and total flavonoids (TF)) were measured. Considerable differences in the evaluated traits were found among the control and drought-stressed plants. Drought stress generally caused a marked reduction in plant growth and carotenoid pigments, and an increase in soluble solutes and oxidative stress. For most cultivars, proline levels in stressed plants increased between 30 and 70-fold compared to the corresponding controls. According to the different measured parameters, on averageT. erectaproved to be more tolerant to drought thanT. patulaandT. tenuifolia. However, a considerable variation in the tolerance to drought was found within each species. The traits with greater association to drought tolerance as well as the most tolerant cultivars could be clearly identified in a principal components analysis (PCA). Overall, our results indicate that drought tolerant cultivars ofTagetescan be identified at early stages using a combination of plant growth and biochemical markers.

scholarly journals Identification of Salt and Drought Biochemical Stress Markers in Several Silene vulgaris Populations

2019 ◽  
Vol 11 (3) ◽  
pp. 800 ◽  
Author(s):  
Aleksandra Koźmińska ◽  
Alina Wiszniewska ◽  
Ewa Hanus-Fajerska ◽  
Monica Boscaiu ◽  
Mohamad Al Hassan ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Salt Stress ◽  
Photosynthetic Pigments ◽  
Growth Parameters ◽  
Soluble Sugars ◽  
Total Phenolic ◽  
Enzymatic Antioxidants ◽  
Silene Vulgaris ◽  
Chlorophylls A And B ◽  
Monovalent Ions ◽  
Contrasting Habitats

This study attempted to determine short-term responses to drought and salt stress in different Silene vulgaris genotypes and to identify potential abiotic stress biochemical indicators in this species. Four populations from contrasting habitats were subjected to drought and three levels of salinity under controlled greenhouse conditions. The determination of several growth parameters after the stress treatments allowed for ranking the tolerance to stress of the four analyzed populations on the basis of their relative degree of stress-induced growth inhibition. This was then correlated with changes in the leaf levels of monovalent ions (Na+, Cl−, and K+), photosynthetic pigments (chlorophylls a and b, carotenoids), osmolytes (total soluble sugars, proline), and non-enzymatic antioxidants (total phenolic compounds and flavonoids). Despite the observed differences, all four populations appeared to be relatively tolerant to both stress conditions, which in general did not cause a significant degradation of photosynthetic pigments and did not generate oxidative stress in the plants. Drought and salinity tolerance in S. vulgaris was mostly dependent on the use of Na+ and K+ for osmotic adjustment under stress, a mechanism that appeared to be constitutive, and not stress-induced, since relatively high concentrations of these cations (without reaching toxic levels) were also present in the leaves of control plants. The inhibition of additional transportation of toxic ions to the leaves, in response to increasing external salinity, seemed to be a relevant mechanism of tolerance, specifically to salt stress, whereas accumulation of soluble sugars under drought conditions may have contributed to tolerance to drought.

scholarly journals Responses to Salt Stress in Portulaca: Insight into Its Tolerance Mechanisms

Plants ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 9 (12) ◽  
pp. 1660
Author(s):  
Orsolya Borsai ◽  
Mohamad Al Hassan ◽  
Cornel Negrușier ◽  
M. Dolores Raigón ◽  
Monica Boscaiu ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Oxidative Stress ◽  
Salt Stress ◽  
Photosynthetic Pigments ◽  
Growth Parameters ◽  
Soluble Sugars ◽  
Total Phenolic ◽  
Saline Stress ◽  
Enzymatic Antioxidants ◽  
Stress Markers ◽  
Monovalent Ions

Climate change and its detrimental effects on agricultural production, freshwater availability and biodiversity accentuated the need for more stress-tolerant varieties of crops. This requires unraveling the underlying pathways that convey tolerance to abiotic stress in wild relatives of food crops, industrial crops and ornamentals, whose tolerance was not eroded by crop cycles. In this work we try to demonstrate the feasibility of such strategy applying and investigating the effects of saline stress in different species and cultivars of Portulaca. We attempted to unravel the main mechanisms of stress tolerance in this genus and to identify genotypes with higher tolerance, a procedure that could be used as an early detection method for other ornamental and minor crops. To investigate these mechanisms, six-week-old seedlings were subjected to saline stress for 5 weeks with increasing salt concentrations (up to 400 mM NaCl). Several growth parameters and biochemical stress markers were determined in treated and control plants, such as photosynthetic pigments, monovalent ions (Na+, K+ and Cl−), different osmolytes (proline and soluble sugars), oxidative stress markers (malondialdehyde—a by-product of membrane lipid peroxidation—MDA) and non-enzymatic antioxidants (total phenolic compounds and total flavonoids). The applied salt stress inhibited plant growth, degraded photosynthetic pigments, increased concentrations of specific osmolytes in both leaves and roots, but did not induce significant oxidative stress, as demonstrated by only small fluctuations in MDA levels. All Portulaca genotypes analyzed were found to be Na+ and Cl− includers, accumulating high amounts of these ions under saline stress conditions, but P. grandiflora proved to be more salt tolerant, showing only a small reduction under growth stress, an increased flower production and the lowest reduction in K+/Na+ rate in its leaves.

scholarly journals Bioactive Compound Contents and Antioxidant Activity of of Fermented Lead Tree (Leucaena leucocephala (lmk.) de Wit) Seeds

Molekul ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 16 (3) ◽  
pp. 194
Author(s):  
Venty Suryanti ◽  
Soerya Dewi Marliyana ◽  
Gracia Lasma Rohana ◽  
Elyna Wahyu Trisnawati ◽  
Widiyanti Widiyanti
Keyword(s):  
Antioxidant Activity ◽  
Ascorbic Acid ◽  
Petroleum Ether ◽  
Bioactive Compounds ◽  
Leucaena Leucocephala ◽  
Bioactive Compound ◽  
Total Phenolic ◽  
Tree Seeds ◽  
Β Carotene ◽  
Tree Seed

Leucaena leucocephala (lmk.) de Wit) (leed tree) seeds have been fermented by Indonesian as a traditional food which is called tempeh. The fermentation products of legume seeds are good functional foods, since they contain many bioactive compounds. The objective of this study was to determine the bioactive compound contents of fermented lead tree seed, such as total phenolic, ascorbic acid, β-carotene and a-tocopherol. Antioxidant activity testing was carried out using the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) method. Analysis of total phenolics, ascorbic acid, β-carotene and a-tocopherol were carried out using the folin-ciocalteu method, iodine titration, spectrophotometry and iron (III) chloride-thiocyanate, respectively. Rhizopus oligosporus was used to ferment lead tree seeds for 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4 days. Fermented leed tree seed powder was extracted with petroleum ether followed by ethanol. In comparison to unfermented leed tree seed powder, the β-carotene and a-tocopherol of the fermented seed powder increased. The greatest enhancement of β-carotene and a-tocopherol contents were observed at day 2 of fermentation. The highest antioxidant activities of fermented leed tree seeds were also obained at day 2 of fermentation with 55.55±4.59 and 74.46±3.49% inhibition in petroleum ether and ethanol extracts, respectively. The results show that lead tree seed tempeh has high antioxidant activity due to the bioactive compounds contains, such as  phenolics, β-carotene and a-tocopherol. Therefore, leed tree seed tempeh could be used for possible commercial production of functional food to alleviate oxidative stress.

Salt stress enhanced antioxidant response in callus of three halophytes (Salsola baryosma, Trianthema triquetra, Zygophyllum simplex) of Thar Desert

Biologia ◽  
2014 ◽  
Vol 69 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
Varsha Sharma ◽  
Kishan Ramawat
Keyword(s):  
Enzyme Activity ◽  
Antioxidant Capacity ◽  
Growth Parameters ◽  
Soluble Sugars ◽  
Dry Weight ◽  
Antioxidant Potential ◽  
Total Phenolic ◽  
Elevated Concentration ◽  
Thar Desert ◽  
Frap Assay

AbstractEffects of salinity on growth, protein content, proline, catalase and antioxidant enzyme activity in callus of three halophytes of the Thar Desert; Salsola baryosma, Trianthema triquetra and Zygophyllum simplex were evaluated. Callus tissues were cultured on Murashige and Skoog’s medium containing different concentrations of NaCl (50, 100 and 200 mM). Increase in dry weight and soluble proteins were observed in the callus exposed to lower salinity (50 and 100 mM NaCl) in all the three species, whereas on the medium containing 200 mM NaCl, significant decrease in these two growth parameters was recorded. Under the salinity stress maximum proline accumulation was found in S. baryosma with parallel increase in soluble sugars. Among the three species, T. triquetra callus showed maximum CAT activity with 50 and 100 mM NaCl treatment, whereas the enzyme activity decreased at 200 mM NaCl treatment in all three species. The antioxidant potential steadily elevated under salt treatment in all the above three species using 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and ferric reducing antioxidant potential (FRAP) assay. Whereas, superoxide dismutase (SOD) quenching were recorded maximum at low (50 and 100 mM) concentrations in all the three species. However, T. triquetra callus showed maximum total phenolic content (TPC) 15 mg GAE g−1 with the elevated concentration of NaCl up to 200 mM, and S. baryosma callus showed lower TPC as compared to both species. A significant correlation between antioxidant capacity and TPC was observed indicating that phenolic compounds are the major contributors to the antioxidant potential in these halophyte species. FRAP and DPPH activity of Z. simplex showed maximum correlation (R = 0.992), as compared to other two species. We can conclude that all the three species exhibit a protection mechanism by sustaining growth parameters and antioxidant capacity. Due to high antioxidant property of all these species, the plant extracts may be included in nutraceutical formulations.

Immobilization of Oat Bran Polyphenols in Complex Coacervates of Whey Protein and Malthodextrin

2020 ◽  
Vol 50 (3) ◽  
pp. 460-469
Author(s):  
Damir Zyaitdinov ◽  
Alexandr Ewteew ◽  
Anna Bannikova
Keyword(s):  
Antioxidant Activity ◽  
Enzymatic Hydrolysis ◽  
Whey Protein ◽  
Bioactive Compounds ◽  
Total Phenolic Content ◽  
Phenolic Content ◽  
Wall Material ◽  
Total Phenolic ◽  
Oat Bran ◽  
Kinetics Of

Introduction. Bioactive compounds are a very popular topic of modern food science, especially when it concerns obtaining polyphenols from cereals. The antiradical, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties of these ingredients allow them to inhibit and prevent coronary, artery, and cardiovascular diseases, as well as several types of cancer. Encapsulation is an effective technology that protects bioactive ingredients during processing and storage. In addition, it also prevents any possible interaction with other food constituents. The research objective was to obtain effective tools of controlled delivery of bioactive compounds. The study featured whey protein as a wall material in combination with maltodextrin to encapsulate the bioactives from oat bran. Study objects and methods. The processed material was oat bran. The technology of its biotransformation was based on ultrasound processing and enzymatic hydrolysis. The antioxidant properties were determined using a coulometer of Expert – 006-antioxidants type (Econix-Expert LLC, Moscow, Russia). Separation and quantitative determination of extract were followed using a Stayer HPLC device (Akvilon, Russia) and a system column Phenomenex Luna 5u C18(2) (250×4.6 mm). The total phenolic content was measured by a modified Folin-Ciocalteu method. To prepare microcapsules, whey protein concentrate (WPC) and maltodextrin (MD) solutions were mixed at ratios 6:4, 4:6, and 5:5. After that, the mixes were treated by ultrasonication and 10% w/w of guar gum solution as double wall material. The encapsulation efficiency (EE) was determined as a ratio of encapsulated phenolic content to total phenolic content. A digestion protocol that simulates conditions of the human gastric and intestinal tract was adapted to investigate the release kinetics of the extracts. Results and discussion. Ferulic acid is the main antioxidant in cereals. Its amount during extraction was consistent with published data: 9.2 mg/mL after ultrasound exposure, 9.0 mg/mL after enzymatic extraction, and 8.6 mg/mL after chemical treatment. The antioxidant activity of the obtained polyphenols was quite high and reached 921 cu/mL. It depended on the concentration of the preparation in the solution and the extraction method. The polyphenols obtained by ultrasonic exposure and enzyme preparations proved to have a more pronounced antioxidant activity. The highest EE (95.28%) was recorded at WPC:MD ratio of 60:40. In vitro enzymatic hydrolysis protocol simulating digestion in the gastrointestinal tract was used to study the effect of capsule structural characteristics on the kinetics of polyphenol release. The percentage of o polyphenols released from capsules ranged from 70% to 83% after two hours of digestion, which confirmed the effectiveness of microencapsulation technology. Conclusion. The research confirmed the possibility of using polyphenols obtained by the biotechnological method from oat bran as functional ingredients. Eventually, they may be used in new functional products with bifidogenic properties. Whey protein can be used to encapsulate polyphenols as the wall material of microcapsules.

scholarly journals In vitro Osmotic Stress Memory in Chrisanthemum hybridum: Structural and Physiological Responses

2017 ◽  
Vol 27 (2) ◽  
pp. 161-169 ◽  
Author(s):  
Lidiia Samarina ◽  
Valentina Malyarovskaya ◽  
Yulija Abilfazova ◽  
Natalia Platonova ◽  
Kristina Klemeshova ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Osmotic Stress ◽  
Relative Water Content ◽  
Soluble Protein ◽  
Growth Parameters ◽  
Physiological Responses ◽  
Proline Content ◽  
Stress Exposure ◽  
Stress Memory ◽  
Relative Water

Structural and physiological responses of chrysanthemum to repeated osmotic stress were studied. Plants were cultured for 2 weeks (for each stress1 and stress 2) on half MS supplemented with mannitol 100 mM (Treatment I) and 200 mM (Treatment II). First stress inhibited growth parameters stronger than second stress in treatment I. In treatment II both stress events strongly inhibited growth parameters of micro‐shoots. Proline content exceeded control 6 ‐ 8 times after 1st stress, and 2 ‐ 5 times after the 2nd stress in treatments I and II, respectively. Soluble protein was accumulated in leaves during both stress exposures, and 2 ‐ 2.5 times exceeded control after the 2nd stress. Relative water content in both treatments increased after the 2nd stress exposure. In treatment II chlorophyll а and carotenoids contents were 8.78 and 4.62 mg/g comparing to control (4.21 and 2.25 mg/g, respectively) after the 1st stress. But after the 2nd stress there was no difference with control.Plant Tissue Cult. & Biotech. 27(2): 161-169, 2017 (December)

scholarly journals Bioactive Compounds, Antioxidant Activity and Growth Behavior in Lettuce Cultivars Grown under Field and Greenhouse Conditions

Proceedings ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 70 (1) ◽  
pp. 52
Author(s):  
Melisa Lanza Volpe ◽  
Verónica C. Soto Vargas ◽  
Anabel Morón ◽  
Roxana E. González
Keyword(s):  
Antioxidant Activity ◽  
Bioactive Compounds ◽  
Antioxidant Activities ◽  
Growth Conditions ◽  
Growth Behavior ◽  
Total Phenolic ◽  
Spectrophotometric Methods ◽  
Leafy Greens ◽  
Growing Conditions ◽  
Field Production

Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) is one of the most important leafy greens worldwide. The nutritional value of its edible leaf depends on different factors including type and growing conditions. The aim was to determine the bioactive compounds content, antioxidant activity and growth behavior of twenty-two lettuce genotypes, cultivated under field and greenhouse conditions. Total phenolic compound, chlorophylls, carotenoids, anthocyanin contents and antioxidant activities were analyzed by spectrophotometric methods. Data were analyzed by analysis of variance (ANOVA). Significant differences between bioactive compounds, antioxidant activity and growth behavior were found among cultivars and morphological types, for both growth conditions. Carotenoid and chlorophyll content was higher in greenhouse conditions for all genotypes. In field production, butterhead and iceberg lettuces showed lower content of these bioactive compounds. The red-pigmented Falbala cultivar from field production showed the highest level of polyphenols and anthocyanin. Meanwhile, in greenhouse conditions, the oak leaf cultivar Grenadine displayed the highest concentration of these phenolic compounds. The iceberg type lettuce showed the lowest percentages of antioxidant activity in both environments. The results showed the effect of growing conditions and the high variability in lettuce bioactive compounds content and antioxidant activity among the different types.

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