scholarly journals REPRESSOR AND ANTIREPRESSOR IN THE REGULATION OF STAPHYLOCOCCAL PENICILLINASE SYNTHESIS

Genetics ◽  
1973 ◽  
Vol 75 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-17
Author(s):  
John Imsande
Keyword(s):  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Binding Site ◽  
Regulatory Protein ◽  
Positive Control ◽  
Negative Control ◽  
Biochemical Data ◽  
Wild Type ◽  
Data Support ◽  
Operator Binding ◽  
Effector Binding

ABSTRACT 5-methyltryptophan (5MT) induces penicillinase synthesis in Staphylococcus aureus. The analog is incorporated into protein by both wild-type and tryptophan-starved cells. Since normal penicillinase repressor appears to contain tryptophan even though penicillinase itself does not, it is concluded that 5MT induces penicillinase synthesis by becoming incorporated into the penicillinase repressor and thereby inactivating the repressor. Thus biochemical data support the existence of a penicillinase repressor and indicate that penicillinase synthesis is regulated by negative control and not by positive control.—In the absence of exogenous tryptophan, staphylococcal penicillinase induction can be inhibited by 7-azatryptophan (7azaT). Because 7azaT is incorporated into protein by tryptophan-starved cells, it is concluded that 7azaT blocks penicillinase induction by inactivating a penicillinase regulatory protein into which the analog has been incorporated. Incorporation of 7azaT does not appear to inactivate the operator binding site or the effector binding site on the penicillinase repressor. Therefore, it appears that 7azaT blocks penicillinase induction by inactivating the penicillinase antirepressor, a protein required for inactivation of the penicillinase repressor and, hence, required for penicillinase induction.

UJI AKTIVITAS ANTIBAKTERI EKSTRAK ETANOL DAUN MEKAI (Pycnarrhena cauliflora DIELS.) TERHADAP Staphylococcus aureus

2020 ◽  
Vol 6 (2) ◽  
pp. 246
Author(s):  
Yayuk Bulam Sarifati ◽  
Sjarif Ismail ◽  
Khemasili Kosala
Keyword(s):  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Antibacterial Activity ◽  
Antimicrobial Agents ◽  
Statistical Tests ◽  
Ethanol Extract ◽  
Inhibition Zone ◽  
Positive Control ◽  
Negative Control ◽  
Control Measurement ◽  
Eye Pain

Mekai leaves (Pycnarrhena cauliflora Diels.) (P. cauliflora). Are known to contain flavonoid compounds, tannins and phenolics that act as antibacterial agents and are used in the treatment of eye pain. Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is one of the examples of bacterial diseases of eye pain and also a major cause of many infections in communities and health facilities with cases of resistance to various antimicrobial agents. The purpose of this study was to prove the antibacterial activity of mekai leaves ethanol extract against S. aureus bacteria. This research is an experimental research. The stages of this research began by extracting mekai leaves using maceration method with 96% ethanol solvent. Antibacterial activity was tested by the disc method (Kirby-Bauer) using ethanol extract concentrations of mekai leaves (EPC) 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, and 80%, positive control using 25 μg amoxicillin and negative control using DMSO 10%. The measurement results of inhibition zones of mekai leaf ethanol extract 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70% and 80% respectively were 8.32 mm, 8.32 mm, 8.32 mm, 8.67 mm, 9.00 mm, 8.67 mm, and 8.33 mm. While the positive control measurement of 25 μg amoxicillin against S. aureus is 28.67 mm and the measurement of 10% negative DMSO control does not produce inhibitory zones, so it can be concluded that the ethanol extract of mekai leaves has antibacterial activity, but the area of ​​inhibition zone produced is smaller than amoxicillin 25 µg. The results of statistical tests using Mann Whitney between negative controls with all EPC concentrations obtained significant differences with p values ​​<0.05, it can be concluded that there is antibacterial activity produced at all EPC concentrations.

scholarly journals UJI AKTIVITAS ANTIBAKTERI ISOLAT SENYAWA GOLONGAN TERPENOID DARI BIJI PEPAYA (Carica papaya L.) TERHADAP Staphylococcus aureus SECARA IN VIVO PADA KELINCI JANTAN

2021 ◽  
Vol 10 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Keyword(s):  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Ethyl Acetate ◽  
Carica Papaya ◽  
Test Group ◽  
Positive Control ◽  
Negative Control ◽  
Test Substance ◽  
Color Test ◽  
Group 15

research on the isolation of terpenoid class of compounds from the seeds of papaya (Carica papaya L.) and test its activity against Staphylococcus aureus in vivo in male rabbits. This research aims to prove that the terpenoid compounds isolated from the seeds of papaya (Carica papaya L.) can inhibit the growth of Staphylococcus aureus in vivo. Separation of terpenoid compounds by column chromatography ((eluent n-hexane: ethyl acetate: ethanol)) resulted in 25 eluates, and then merged based on the results of identification by TLC ((nhexane: ethyl acetate (8: 2)) and the color test reagent Lieburmann -Burchard produce 5 fraction groups. fraction D showed positive terpenoids with Rf 0.75 and the color purple with Lieburmann-Burchard reagent. study using 15 rabbits were divided into 5 groups: P1 (negative control), P2 (positive control) , P3 (5% of the test group), P4 (10% of the test group), P5 (test group 15%). each group was given the intracutaneous Staphylococcus aureus as 0,2ml on the backs of rabbits. Having symptoms of infection each group was given the test substance 3 times a day topically, the observed parameter is the diameter of the wound, and histopathological observations performed on days 3,6 and 9 Analysis of the results of research conducted using ANSIRA showed highly significant differences between groups (p <0.05). Then proceed with the analysis of the results of the analysis HSD test showed highly significant differences in the test group 5% to 10% of the test group and the test group 15%. Isolates terpenoid class of compounds from the seeds of papaya (Carica Papaya L.) with a concentration of 10% and 15% can inhibit the growth of Staphylococcus aureus. Keywords: Antibacterial, Staphylococcus aureus, male rabbits

scholarly journals Uji daya hambat ekstrak daun awar-awar (ficus septica burm.f) terhadap pertumbuhan bakteri staphylococcus aureus dan eschericia coli

2016 ◽  
Vol 4 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
Ismiranti D.A. Tuna ◽  
Pemsi M. Wowor ◽  
Henoch Awaloei
Keyword(s):  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Bacterial Infection ◽  
Natural Science ◽  
Leaf Extract ◽  
Positive Control ◽  
Negative Control ◽  
University Faculty ◽  
Microbiology Laboratory ◽  
Causal Organism ◽  
Empiric Data

Abstract: Awar-awar (Ficus septica Burm.F) is one of the plants that used by comunities. Based from the empiric data, this plant is believed have efficacy as a drug and could treat diseases. Staphylococcus aureus dan Eschericia coli are the most frequent causal organism in human bacterial infection. This study aimed to determine whether there is inhibition of leaf extract awar-awar against Staphylococcus aureus and Eschericia coli. This was a laboratory experimental with Kirby-Bauer pitting modification at Phytochemistry and Microbiology Laboratory of Sam Ratulangi University Faculty of Mathematics and natural Science. Awar-awar leaf extract was obtained from maceration process with 96% ethanol. Consentration of thick extract that was used were 100 mg/ml, 50 mg/ml, 25 mg/ml, 12,5 mg/ml. ciprofloxacin was used as positive control,and aquades was used as negative control. The result showed that the average of inhibition diemeters by awar-awar leaves were 100 mg/ml, 50 mg/ml, 25 mg/ml, 12,5 mg/ml respectively are 27,5 mm, 24,3 mm, 22,3 mm, 21,8 in Staphylococcus aureus, whereas in Eschericia coli were 24,8 mm, 21 mm, 18,3 mm, 17 mm. Conclusion: Awar-awar leaf extract has a potential inhibion effect on the growth of Staphylococcus aureus and Eschericia coli.Keywords: awar-awar leaves extract, staphylococcus aureus, eschericia coli, inhibition test. Abstrak: Tanaman awar-awar merupakan salah satu tanaman yang digunakan masyarakat untuk pengobatan. Berdasarkan data empiris, tanaman ini dipercaya memiliki khasiat sebagai obat dan bisa mengobati penyakit. Bakteri Staphylococcus aureus dan Eschericia coli merupakan penyebab infeksi utama pada manusia. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui ada tidaknya daya hambat ekstrak daun awar-awar terhadap bakteri Staphylococcus aureus dan Eschericia coli. Jenis penelitian ini ialah eksperimental laboratorium dengan modifikasi Kirby-Bauer sumuran di Laboratorium Fitokimia dan Mikrobiologi Fakultas MIPA Universitas sam Ratulangi. Ekstrak daun awar-awar diperoleh dari proses maserasi dengan etanol 96%. Konsentrasi ekstrak kental yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini ialah 100 mg/ml, 50 mg/ml, 25 mg/ml, 12,5 mg/ml. Siprofloksasin sebagai kontrol positif, dan akuades sebagai kontrol negatif. Hasil penelitian mendapatkan rata-rata diameter zona hambat ekstrak daun awar-awar konsentrasi 100 mg/ml, 50 mg/ml, 25 mg/ml, 12,5 mg/ml berturut-turut ialah 27,5 mm, 24,3 mm, 22,3 mm, 21,8 mm pada bakteri Staphylococcus aureus, sedangkan pada bakteri Eschericia coli ialah 24,8 mm, 21 mm, 18,3 mm, 17 mm. Simpulan: Ekstrak daun awar-awar berpotensi memiliki daya hambat terhadap pertumbuhan bakteri Staphylococcus aureus dan Eschericia coli. Kata kunci: ekstrak daun awar-awar, staphylococcus aureus, eschericia coli, uji daya hambat.

scholarly journals Effectiveness of Ethanolic Extract of Aloe Vera Leaves against Staphylococcus aureus

2020 ◽  
Vol 3 (2) ◽  
pp. 36-40
Author(s):  
Viki Ayu Intan Permatasari ◽  
Mutia Hariani Nurjanah ◽  
Wimbuh Tri Widodo
Keyword(s):  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Aloe Vera ◽  
Ethanolic Extract ◽  
Ethanol Extract ◽  
Average Diameter ◽  
Positive Control ◽  
Negative Control ◽  
Traditional Medicines ◽  
Alternative Ingredients ◽  
High Concentrations

Since long ago Indonesia used nutritious plants as traditional medicines. Various types of plants in Indonesia can be used as alternative ingredients, one of which is aloe vera. Aloe vera contains saponin and anthraquinone, so aloe vera leaves function as antiseptic and antibacteria. Staphylococcus aureus is a gram-positive coccus bacteria. This bacterium is often found as a normal germ flora in humans. Staphylococcus aureus can cause infections in humans and animals. This study aims to determine the effect of ethanolic extract of Aloe vera leaves in inhibiting Staphylococcus aureus by using maceration extract method. The concentrations used were 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100% with positive control (Erytromycin) and negative control (aquades). The inhibitory zone analysis is done using the table method. Test of ethanol extract of Aloe vera leaves in inhibiting Staphylococcus aureus produced inhibition zones at concentrations of 60%, 80% and 100% with average diameter of 6.94 mm, 6.22 mm and 9.5 mm. The conclusion of this research is the ethanolic extract of Aloe vera leaves can inhibit Staphylococcus aureus in high concentrations

scholarly journals Pengaruh Antibakteri Ekstrak Kulit Batang Matoa (Pometia pinnata) terhadap Bakteri Staphylococcus aureus secara In vitro

Jurnal MIPA ◽  
2013 ◽  
Vol 2 (2) ◽  
pp. 128 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mercy Ngajow ◽  
Jemmy Abidjulu ◽  
Vanda S. Kamu
Keyword(s):  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Secondary Metabolites ◽  
Antibacterial Effect ◽  
Inhibition Zone ◽  
Stem Bark ◽  
Positive Control ◽  
Negative Control ◽  
Bark Extract ◽  
Distilled Water

Telah dilakukan penelitian secara kualitatif terhadap pengaruh antibakteri dari ekstrak kulit batang matoa (Pometia pinnata. Spp.) terhadap bakteri Gram positif Staphylococcus aureus . Sebelum dilakukan uji antibakteri, sampel yang telah diekstrak secara maserasi diuji fitokimia terlebih dahulu untuk menentukan kandungan metabolit sekunder yang telah diketahui berperan sebagai agen antibakteri. Setelah dilakukan uji fitokimia, ekstrak diuji aktivitas antibakterinya terhadap bakteri Staphylococcus aureus dengan menggunakan teknik difusi agar dengan cara sumuran. Ekstrak dilarutkan pada aquades steril dengan perbandingan 2 g ekstrak pada 2 mL air. Untuk kontrol positif, digunakan ciprofloxacin dan aquades steril sebagai kontrol negatif. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa ekstrak kulit batang matoa memiliki aktivitas antibakteri setelah diinkubasi selama 24 jam pada 37 OC. Dari 3 kali pengulangan dengan masing – masing 3 sumuran, didapat zona hambat masing – masing 16.84 mm, 12.5 mm dan 14.5 mm dengan kontrol positif 29.67 mm serta kontrol negatif 0 mm. Hasil yang diperoleh didukung oleh keberadaan metabolit sekunder hasil uji fitokimia yaitu tanin, flavonoid, terpenoid dan saponin.A qualitative study has done  of the antibacterial effect of matoa (Pometia pinnata) stem bark extract against Gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus . Before the antibacterial test , samples were extracted by maceration and then  phytochemical  tested to measuring the content of secondary metabolites  that have been known to act as an antibacterial agent . After being tested of phytochemical , extracts were tested the antibacterial effect  against Staphylococcus aureus using agar diffusion technique. Extract was dissolved in sterile distilled water with a ratio of 2 g of extract in 2 mL of water . For the positive control , use of ciprofloxacin and sterile distilled water as a negative control . Results of this study indicate that matoa bark extract has antibacterial effect after incubation for 24 h at 37OC . Of 3 times with each repetition - each 3 wells, the inhibition zone obtained - each 16.84 mm , 12.5 mm and 14.5 mm with 29.67 mm of positive control and a negative control by 0 mm . The results are supported by the presence of secondary metabolites by phytochemical test such as tannins , flavonoids , terpenoids and saponins.

scholarly journals Expression of Ki67 in Precancerous Squamous Cell Skin Lesion of Mice Induced by DMBA

2019 ◽  
Vol 13 (2) ◽  
pp. 44
Author(s):  
Siti Nurkasanah ◽  
Aida S D Hoemardani ◽  
Evlina Suzanna Sinuraya
Keyword(s):  
Skin Lesion ◽  
Squamous Cell ◽  
Precancerous Lesion ◽  
Positive Control ◽  
Negative Control ◽  
Cumulative Number ◽  
Wild Type ◽  
Imiquimod Cream ◽  
Ki67 Expression ◽  
One Way Anova

Background: Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is an invasive skin cancer that is found in the human skin. SCC growth from the precancerous lesion is known as a wart or papilloma. Ki67 is a protein expressed by cells during proliferation. Cells with higher Ki67 expression showed abnormal regulation of apoptosis. 5-FU is an antimetabolite compound that works as a DNA/RNA pyrimidine antagonist molecule that can induce cell apoptosis. The main objective of this research is to evaluate the inhibition proliferation of precancerous squamous cell in skin lesion induced by DMBA/croton oil treated by using 5-FU cream topically compared to 5% imiquimod cream. Methods: This research assesses three different concentrations of 5-FU cream namely 1%, 2%, and 5% topically on 24 wild type mice divided into 6 groups of 4 each including positive control (with carcinogenesis but without treatment), negative control (without treatment ; normal), carcinogenesis with treatment 5-FU cream (1%, 2%, and 5%) or 5% imiquimod cream. The expression of Ki67 was analyzed using immunohistochemistry. Statistical analysis was performed by one-way ANOVA using SPSS version 23. Results: Based on this research, 5-FU cream treatment during 4 weeks (week 10-week 14) showed the decrease of cumulative number of papilloma (p<0.05) and immunohistochemistry analysis resulted in the lowest Ki67 expression in 5-FU 2% and 5% groups compared to 5% imiquimod cream (p<0.05). Conclusions: 5-FU cream treatment during 4 weeks showed a decrease of papilloma and Ki67 expression in 5-FU cream 2% and

scholarly journals Antibacterial activities of combination of ethanol extract of Delima fruit (Punica granatum L.) and Sereh stem (Cymbopogon citratus) on Staphylococcus aureus

2019 ◽  
Vol 6 (12) ◽  
pp. 5037
Author(s):  
Melia Pebrina ◽  
Indah Komala Sari ◽  
Eliza Arman ◽  
Honesty Diana Morika
Keyword(s):  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Antibacterial Activity ◽  
Ethanol Extract ◽  
Punica Granatum ◽  
Antibacterial Activities ◽  
Positive Control ◽  
Negative Control ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Randomized Design ◽  
Pomegranate Peel Extract

ABSTRACT Background: Pomegranates contain chemical saponins and flavonoids while lemongrass stems have flavonoid chemical compounds. Substances that can inhibit the linking of bacteria are saponins and flavonoids. The most common microorganism found in ulcus diabetikum (ulcer diabetes) is Staphylococcus aureus. The purpose of this study was to determine the antibacterial activity of a combination of pomegranate ethanol extract and ethanol extract of lemongrass stems against S. aureus bacteria.Methods: This study used an experimental design with a complete randomized design study divided into 5 groups: groups 1 (75:25), 2 (50:50), 3 (25:75), positive control (tetracycline) and negative control. Manufacture of pomegranate peel extract and lemongrass stems was done by maceration method for further rotary, after the extract was obtained tested for antibacterial activity by diffusion method using a cylinder. With the test used analysis of variance one way.Results: The results of this study showed that the combination of pomegranate ethanol extract and citronella stem ethanol extract showed activity against S. aureus with a ratio of 15 ul:5 ul, 15 ul:15 ul, 5 ul:15 ul with inhibitory diameter of  respectively 13 mm, 11 mm, 8 mm. Whereas for positive control with chloramphenicol, the inhibition area is 9 mm.Conclusions: Statistically the combination of pomegranate ethanol extract and lemongrass stems has antibacterial power which uses p=0.005 and p<0.05. The combination of pomegranate ethanol extract and lemongrass stems has very strong antibacterial activity against S. aureus due to inhibition zones of 10-20 mm.

scholarly journals AKTIVITAS ANTIBAKTERI EKSTRAK DAN FRAKSI KARANG LUNAK Sinularia SP. DI TELUK MANADO

PHARMACON ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 8 (1) ◽  
pp. 114
Author(s):  
Lyone Katiandagho ◽  
Defny S Wewengkang ◽  
Sri Sudewi
Keyword(s):  
Escherichia Coli ◽  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Antibacterial Activity ◽  
Soft Coral ◽  
Ethanol Extract ◽  
Positive Control ◽  
Negative Control ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Chloroform Fraction ◽  
Water Fraction

ABSTRACT Soft Coral Sinularia sp.has been shown to have antibacterial activity. This research aims to determine the antibacterial activity of marine  organisms obtained from Manado bay. The method in this study is the diffusion method with positive control chloramphenicol and negative control of methanol in Escerichia coli and Sthaphylococcus aureus. The result showed that extracts, chloroform fraction and methanol-water fraction were obtained inhibiting category of Sthapylococcus aureus bacteria, but in the chloroform fraction and ethanol extract can inhibit Escerichia coli bacteria categorized as strong. With it can be conlueded that the extract and fraction of soft Sinularia sp. have bioactive compounds with a broth spectrum of antibacterial activity.Keywords: Sinularia sp., Chloramphenicol, Escerichia coli, Sthaphylococcus aureus, and antibacterial. ABSTRAK Karang lunak Sinularia sp. telah terbukti memiliki aktivitas antibakteri. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui aktivitas antibakteri pada organisme biota laut yang diperoleh dari teluk Manado. Metode dalam penelitian ini adalah metode difusi agar dengan kontrol positif kloramfenikol dan kontrol negatit metanol pada Escherichia coli dan Staphylococcus aureus. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa ekstrak, fraksi kloroform, dan fraksi metanol-air dapat menghambat bakteri Staphylococcus aereus dikategorikan sedang, namun pada fraksi kloroform dan ekstrak etanol dapat menghambat bakteri Escerichia coli dikategorikan kuat. Dengan demikian dapat disimpulkan bahwa ekstrak dan fraksi karang lunak Sinularia sp.memiliki senyawa bioaktif dengan spektrum yang luas terhadap aktivitas antibakteri.Kata kunci: Sinularia sp, Kloramfenikol, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, dan antibakteri

scholarly journals Pengaruh Pemberian Ekstrak Kencur (Kaempferia galanga L.) terhadap Peningkatan Zona Hambat Pertumbuhan Bakteri Staphylococcus aureus

2020 ◽  
Vol 9 (2) ◽  
pp. 145
Author(s):  
Linda Putri Utami ◽  
Peter Gunawan Tandean ◽  
Liliawanti Liliawanti
Keyword(s):  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Antibacterial Effect ◽  
Food Poisoning ◽  
Positive Control ◽  
Negative Control ◽  
Diffusion Method ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Control Group Design ◽  
High Antibacterial Activity ◽  
Kaempferia Galanga

The prevalence of infectious diseases in Indonesia is still relatively high, for example Infection caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Indonesia has many traditional plants that can be used for herbal treatments containing tannins, flavonoids, and essential oils which have relatively high antibacterial activity by forming inhibitory zones in the Staphylococcus aureus bacteria which are the cause of skin infections food poisoning to systemic infections. Thereforekencur can be used as an alternative medicine. This study was intented to determine the effect of giving kencur extract (Kaempferia galanga L.) In inhibiting the growth of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. This study was experimental laboratory used plate diffusion method of “Postest Ony Control Group Design” design. There were 7 groups, 5 treatment groups and 2 control groups. The concentration of treatment group was 100%, 50%, 25%, 12,5%, 6,25% while for positive control using amoxicillin 25μg and aquadest as negative control. The bacterial used were Staphylococcus aureus. The results showed that kencur extract (Kaempferia galanga L.) had an antibacterial effect in inhibiting the growth of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria.With a value of p = 0.001 or p <α. kencur extract (Kaempferia galanga L.) has an antibacterial effect in inhibiting the growth of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria.

scholarly journals FORMULASI GEL EKSTRAK BATANG PEPAYA SEBAGAI ANTIBAKTERI TERHADAP BAKTERI STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS

2020 ◽  
Vol 4 (2) ◽  
pp. 1
Author(s):  
Amalia Eka Putri ◽  
Kristina Handayani
Keyword(s):  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Antibacterial Activity ◽  
Infectious Diseases ◽  
Inhibition Zone ◽  
Positive Control ◽  
Negative Control ◽  
Stem Extract ◽  
Gel Preparation ◽  
To Come ◽  
Important Disease

Infectious disease is an important disease in Indonesia. Infectious diseases can be caused by pathogenic microorganisms such as the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923. Infectious diseases can be treated with antibiotics, but antibiotics now resistance.Therefore, other alternatives such as are needed papaya stem which can be used as an antibacterial against S.aureus ATCC 25923. The purpose of this study was to determine the antibacterial activity of papaya stem extract gel against Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923. Papaya stem sample extracted using a method soxhletation with 96% ethanol. The extract was made into a gel dosage with a concentration of 5%. The positive control used is clindamycin and the negative control is gel without extract. The results of the papaya stem gel antibacterial activity test showed that the papaya stem gel had antibacterial activity against S.aureus ATCC 25923. The papaya stem extract gel preparation with a concentration of 5% had an average inhibition zone diameter of 18,56±0,51mm. The antibacterial activity is thought to come from the flavonoids, tannins, and saponins contained in the papaya stem fraction.

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