scholarly journals Exploring the Link between Leaky-Gut-Related Markers and Metabolic Health in a Large Dutch Adult Population

Metabolites ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (12) ◽  
pp. 877
Author(s):  
Hiroyuki Hoshiko ◽  
Edith J. M. Feskens ◽  
Els Oosterink ◽  
Renata M. C. Ariens ◽  
Jurriaan J. Mes ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Chronic Inflammation ◽  
Metabolic Diseases ◽  
Inflammatory Marker ◽  
Adult Population ◽  
Large Population ◽  
Density Lipoprotein ◽  
Hdl Cholesterol ◽  
Metabolic Health ◽  
Leaky Gut ◽  
Health Parameters

A leaky gut can trigger chronic inflammation and poses a primary risk for metabolic diseases. This study established a relationship between intestinal integrity (leaky gut) and metabolic health in a general population. Leaky-gut markers (LGMs) were studied in a large population of Dutch adults with a broad spectrum of metabolic health. This study enrolled 500 individuals selected within the NQplus cohort study (n = 2048) by stratified randomization, based on waist circumference, fasting glucose, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol to obtain a representative and balanced population in terms of metabolic health parameters, sex (male/female), and age (<54/≥54 years). LGMs—zonulin, lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP), and soluble CD14 (sCD14)—were measured in EDTA plasma or serum. Zonulin was most strongly associated with metabolic health. Zonulin and LBP were most strongly associated with the inflammatory marker C-reactive protein (CRP). The quartile analysis for zonulin and LBP showed that most metabolic health parameters and CRP levels increased from Q1 to Q4, with significant differences between quartiles, except for markers related to glucose homeostasis (glucose and glycated hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c)). Associations between LGMs and metabolic health parameters in this large Dutch adult population indicate that LGMs are valuable markers for identifying people at risk of a leaky gut and subsequent chronic inflammation linked to metabolic disorders.

scholarly journals An Observational Study to Evaluate the Association between Intestinal Permeability, Leaky Gut Related Markers, and Metabolic Health in Healthy Adults

Healthcare ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 9 (11) ◽  
pp. 1583
Author(s):  
Hiroyuki Hoshiko ◽  
Gertrude G. Zeinstra ◽  
Kaatje Lenaerts ◽  
Els Oosterink ◽  
Renata M. C. Ariens ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Acetylsalicylic Acid ◽  
Intestinal Permeability ◽  
Density Lipoprotein ◽  
Metabolic Health ◽  
Lipoprotein Cholesterol ◽  
Permeability Test ◽  
Leaky Gut ◽  
Gut Permeability ◽  
Acid Challenge ◽  
Health Parameters

We explored whether metabolic health is linked to intestinal permeability, using a multi-sugar (MS) permeability test, and whether intestinal permeability is correlated with the leaky gut-related markers (LGM) zonulin, LBP, and sCD14. Metabolically healthy (n = 15) and unhealthy subjects (n = 15) were recruited based on waist circumference, fasting glucose, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels. Participants underwent an MS permeability test that assessed site-specific permeabilities of the gastroduodenum and small and large intestines. The test was performed with/without an acetylsalicylic acid challenge to measure and correlate the gut permeability, LGM, and metabolic health. At baseline, metabolic health showed no correlation with gut permeability. Significant correlations were found between the metabolic health parameters and LGM. In the acetylsalicylic acid challenged MS permeability test, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol was correlated with the sucralose/erythritol ratio, reflecting the whole intestinal permeability. Correlations between most metabolic health parameters and LGM during the acetylsalicylic acid challenge were less pronounced than at baseline. In both MS permeability tests, no significant correlations were found between LGM (plasma and serum) and gut permeability. Thus, correlations between LGM and metabolic health might not be linked with paracellular gut permeability. Transcellular translocation and/or lipoprotein-related transportation is a more likely mechanism underlying the association between LGM and metabolic health.

scholarly journals Identification of leaky gut-related markers as indicators of metabolic health in Dutch adults: The Nutrition Questionnaires plus (NQplus) study

PLoS ONE ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 16 (6) ◽  
pp. e0252936
Author(s):  
Hiroyuki Hoshiko ◽  
Edith J. M. Feskens ◽  
Els Oosterink ◽  
Renata M. C. Ariens ◽  
Jurriaan J. Mes ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Cohort Study ◽  
Bacterial Translocation ◽  
Metabolic Diseases ◽  
Metabolic Health ◽  
Leaky Gut ◽  
C Reactive Protein ◽  
Gamma Glutamyl Transpeptidase ◽  
Protein Levels ◽  
Reactive Protein ◽  
Health Parameters

Background and aim Chronic inflammation is a primary risk factor for chronic metabolic disease and may be triggered by a “leaky gut.” Several biomarkers have been recognized to indicate intestinal permeability (i.e., leaky gut) and bacterial translocation. Nonetheless, which of these biomarkers exhibit the highest correlation with metabolic health parameters remains unclear. Hence, this study aimed to explore the correlation between leaky gut-related markers and metabolic health. Methods Based on waist circumference, plasma fasting glucose, plasma gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT), and plasma LDL cholesterol, two groups of 40 subjects with the most extreme metabolic health profiles were selected from the NQplus cohort study (n = 2048), which was previously conducted by the Wageningen University’s Division of Human Nutrition. Eight potential leaky gut-related markers were selected from the literature and measured in serum or EDTA plasma samples of these selected individuals. These samples were also obtained from the NQplus cohort study. Results From the leaky gut markers, levels of zonulin, lipopolysaccharide-binding protein, soluble CD14, bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein, and peptidoglycan were significantly higher in individuals with unhealthy metabolic profiles (p<0.05). No differences in EndoCAb IgM, EndoCAb IgA, and EndoCAb IgG were observed between healthy and unhealthy individuals. Stepwise regression analysis revealed that zonulin was substantially associated with metabolic health parameters such as BMI, blood glucose, triglyceride, GGT, and C-reactive protein levels. C-reactive protein, an inflammation marker, showed the most pronounced association with zonulin. Conclusions Biomarkers that link a leaky gut and subsequent bacterial translocation to metabolic health were identified in this study. Especially zonulin may aid in monitoring a leaky gut and detecting individuals at risk for developing chronic metabolic diseases.

scholarly journals Effect of Dietary Carbohydrate Type on Serum Cardiometabolic Risk Indicators and Adipose Tissue Inflammatory Markers

2018 ◽  
Vol 103 (9) ◽  
pp. 3430-3438 ◽  
Author(s):  
Huicui Meng ◽  
Nirupa R Matthan ◽  
Susan K Fried ◽  
Silvia Berciano ◽  
Maura E Walker ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Adipose Tissue ◽  
Cholesterol Efflux ◽  
Cardiometabolic Risk ◽  
Ex Vivo ◽  
Inflammatory Marker ◽  
Density Lipoprotein ◽  
Hdl Cholesterol ◽  
Risk Indicators ◽  
Dietary Carbohydrate ◽  
Fasting Serum

Abstract Context and Objective Direct comparisons between types of dietary carbohydrate in terms of cardiometabolic risk indicators are limited. This study was designed to compare the effects of an isocaloric exchange of simple, refined, and unrefined carbohydrates on serum cardiometabolic risk indicators, adipose tissue inflammatory markers, and peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) fractional cholesterol efflux. Design, Participants, and Measures Participants [postmenopausal women and men (N = 11), 65 ± 8 years, body mass index 29.8 ± 3.2 kg/m2, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol ≥2.6 mmol/L] were provided with diets (60% energy from total carbohydrate, 15% from protein, 25% from fat) for 4.5 weeks in a randomized crossover design, with 2-week washout periods. The variable component was an isocaloric exchange of simple, refined, or unrefined carbohydrate–containing foods. Serum lipoprotein, glucose, insulin, and inflammatory marker concentrations were measured. Abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue was aspirated to assess macrophage and inflammatory marker gene expression and ex vivo cytokine secretion, and PBMCs were isolated to assess ex vivo fractional cholesterol efflux. Results Fasting serum LDL and non–high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol concentrations were higher after the refined compared with simple or unrefined carbohydrate–enriched diets (P &lt; 0.01). Other serum measures, ex vivo fractional cholesterol efflux and adipose tissue gene expression and ex vivo cytokine secretion, were similar between diets. Conclusions Diets enriched in refined compared with simple or unrefined carbohydrate resulted in higher fasting serum LDL and non-HDL cholesterol concentrations but had little effect on other cardiometabolic risk indicators. This small study raises the intriguing possibility that refined carbohydrate may have unique adverse effects on cardiometabolic risk indicators distinct from simple and unrefined carbohydrate.

scholarly journals Increased Oxidized High-Density Lipoprotein/High-Density Lipoprotein–Cholesterol Ratio as a Potential Indicator of Disturbed Metabolic Health in Overweight and Obese Individuals

2019 ◽  
Vol 51 (1) ◽  
pp. 24-33
Author(s):  
Jelena M Janac ◽  
Aleksandra Zeljkovic ◽  
Zorana D Jelic-Ivanovic ◽  
Vesna S Dimitrijevic-Sreckovic ◽  
Jelena Vekic ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
High Density Lipoprotein ◽  
Density Lipoprotein ◽  
Hdl Cholesterol ◽  
Metabolic Health ◽  
High Density ◽  
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ◽  
Cholesterol Ratio ◽  
Amyloid A ◽  
Potential Indicator ◽  
Metabolically Healthy

AbstractBackgroundWe evaluated the qualitative characteristics of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) particles in metabolically healthy and unhealthy overweight and obese subjects.MethodsThe study involved 115 subject individuals classified as metabolically healthy and unhealthy, as in overweight and obese groups. Commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits were used to measure oxidized HDL (OxHDL) and serum amyloid A (SAA) concentrations. Lipoprotein subfractions were separated using nondenaturing gradient gel electrophoresis.ResultsAn independent association was shown between increased OxHDL/HDL-cholesterol ratio and the occurrence of metabolically unhealthy phenotype in the overweight and obese groups. The OxHDL/HDL-cholesterol ratio showed excellent and acceptable diagnostic accuracy in determination of metabolic health phenotypes (overweight group, AUC = 0.881; obese group, AUC = 0.765). Accumulation of smaller HDL particles in metabolically unhealthy subjects was verified by lipoprotein subfraction analysis. SAA concentrations did not differ significantly between phenotypes.ConclusionsIncreased OxHDL/HDL-cholesterol ratio may be a potential indicator of disturbed metabolic health in overweight and obese individuals.

scholarly journals Multifaceted Effect of Rubus Occidentalis on Hyperglycemia and Hypercholesterolemia in Mice with Diet-Induced Metabolic Diseases

Nutrients ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 10 (12) ◽  
pp. 1846 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jiyeon Kim ◽  
Jinho An ◽  
Heetae Lee ◽  
Kyungjae Kim ◽  
Su Lee ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Metabolic Syndrome ◽  
Metabolic Diseases ◽  
Density Lipoprotein ◽  
Hdl Cholesterol ◽  
Experimental Period ◽  
Tolerance Test ◽  
Metabolic Phenotype ◽  
Simultaneous Occurrence ◽  
Beneficial Effects ◽  
Rubus Occidentalis

Metabolic syndrome is characterized by a combination of several metabolic disorders, including obesity, hyperglycemia, and hyperlipidemia. A simultaneous occurrence is one of the most crucial features of metabolic syndrome; therefore, we selected an animal model in which this would be reflected. We fed C57BL/6N mice a high-fat diet for 23 weeks to develop metabolic syndrome and examined the efficacy of Rubus occidentalis (RO) for hyperglycemia and hypercholesterolemia. Oral administration of RO for 16 weeks improved hyperglycemia as indicated by significantly decreased fasting glucose levels and a glucose tolerance test. Improvements were also observed in hypercholesterolemia, in which significant decreases in serum total cholesterol, non-high-density lipoprotein (non-HDL) cholesterol, apolipoprotein A-1, and apolipoprotein B levels were observed. The time comparison of major biomarkers, observed at the initiation and termination of the experimental period, consistently supported the beneficial effects of RO on each metabolic phenotype. In addition, RO treatment attenuated the excessive fat accumulation in hepatic and adipose tissue by decreasing the size and number of lipid droplets. These results suggested that RO simultaneously exerted antihyperglycemic and antihyperlipidemic effects in mice with diet-induced metabolic syndrome.

The effects of high-intensity resistance exercise on the blood lipid profile and liver function in hypercholesterolemic hamsters

2012 ◽  
Vol 37 (3) ◽  
pp. 448-454 ◽  
Author(s):  
Fernando Tadeu Trevisan Frajacomo ◽  
Marcelo Marcos Piva Demarzo ◽  
Cleverson Rodrigues Fernandes ◽  
Flávia Martinello ◽  
José Alexandre Bachur ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Liver Function ◽  
Resistance Exercise ◽  
High Intensity ◽  
Metabolic Diseases ◽  
Density Lipoprotein ◽  
Hdl Cholesterol ◽  
Blood Lipid ◽  
Atherogenic Dyslipidemia ◽  
Standard Diet ◽  
Hypercholesterolemic Diet

It is well established that atherogenic dyslipidemia, characterized by high levels of triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol and low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, constitutes important risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Regular exercise has been associated with a reduced risk for metabolic diseases. However, studies supporting the concept that resistance exercise is a modifier of blood lipid parameters are often contradictory. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of high-intensity resistance exercise on the serum levels of TG, TC, HDL and non-HDL cholesterol, glucose, and the liver function enzymes alanine aminotransferase (ALT, EC 2.6.1.2) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST, EC 2.6.1.1) in golden Syrian hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus (Waterhouse, 1839)) fed a hypercholesterolemic diet. Sedentary groups (S) and exercise groups (E) were fed a standard diet (SS and ES) or a cholesterol-enriched diet (standard plus 1% cholesterol, SC and EC). Resistance exercise was performed by jumps in the water, carrying a load strapped to the chest, representing 10 maximum repetitions (10 RM, 30 s rest, five days per week for five weeks). Mean blood sample comparisons were made by ANOVA + Tukey or ANOVA + Kruskal–Wallis tests (p < 0.05) to compare parametric and nonparametric samples, respectively. There were no differences in blood lipids between the standard diet groups (SS and ES) (p > 0.05). However, the EC group increased the glucose, non-HDL, and TC levels in comparison with the ES group. Moreover, the EC group increased the TG levels versus the SC group (p < 0.05). In addition, the ALT levels were increased only by diet treatment. These findings indicated that high-intensity resistance exercise contributed to dyslipidemia in hamsters fed a hypercholesterolemic diet, whereas liver function enzymes did not differ in regards to the exercise protocol.

scholarly journals Trained Immunity and Reactivity of Macrophages and Endothelial Cells

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Charles Drummer ◽  
Fatma Saaoud ◽  
Ying Shao ◽  
Yu Sun ◽  
Keman Xu ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Endothelial Cells ◽  
Chronic Inflammation ◽  
Immune Cells ◽  
Metabolic Diseases ◽  
Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle ◽  
Density Lipoprotein ◽  
Innate Immune ◽  
Innate Immune Cells ◽  
Vaccine Response ◽  
Trained Immunity

Innate immune cells can develop exacerbated immunologic response and long-term inflammatory phenotype following brief exposure to endogenous or exogenous insults, which leads to an altered response towards a second challenge after the return to a nonactivated state. This phenomenon is known as trained immunity (TI). TI is not only important for host defense and vaccine response but also for chronic inflammations such as cardiovascular and metabolic diseases such as atherosclerosis. TI can occur in innate immune cells such as monocytes/macrophages, natural killer cells, endothelial cells (ECs), and nonimmune cells, such as fibroblast. In this brief review, we analyze the significance of TI in ECs, which are also considered as innate immune cells in addition to macrophages. TI can be induced by a variety of stimuli, including lipopolysaccharides, bacillus Calmette-Guerin, and oxLDL (oxidized low-density lipoprotein), which are defined as risk factors for cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. Furthermore, TI in ECs is functional for inflammation effectiveness and transition to chronic inflammation. Rewiring of cellular metabolism of the trained cells takes place during induction of TI, including increased glycolysis, glutaminolysis, increased accumulation of tricarboxylic acid cycle metabolites and acetyl-coenzyme A production, as well as increased mevalonate synthesis. Subsequently, this leads to epigenetic remodeling, resulting in important changes in chromatin architecture that enables increased gene transcription and enhanced proinflammatory immune response. However, TI pathways and inflammatory pathways are separated to ensure memory stays when inflammation undergoes resolution. Additionally, reactive oxygen species play context-dependent roles in TI. Therefore, TI plays significant roles in EC and macrophage pathology and chronic inflammation. However, further characterization of TI in ECs and macrophages would provide novel insights into cardiovascular disease pathogenesis and new therapeutic targets.

scholarly journals CTRP3 and serum triglycerides in children aged 7-10 years

PLoS ONE ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 15 (12) ◽  
pp. e0241813
Author(s):  
Arsham Alamian ◽  
Jo-Ann Marrs ◽  
W. Andrew Clark ◽  
Kristy L. Thomas ◽  
Jonathan M. Peterson
Keyword(s):  
Molecular Weight ◽  
Metabolic Diseases ◽  
Human Subjects ◽  
Density Lipoprotein ◽  
Hdl Cholesterol ◽  
Oligomeric State ◽  
Serum Samples ◽  
Serum Triglycerides ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
The Relationship

Introduction The prevalence of obesity-related disorders has been steadily increasing over the past couple of decades. Diseases that were once only detected in adults are now prevalent in children, such as hyperlipidemia. The adipose tissue-derived hormonal factor C1q TNF Related Protein 3 (CTRP3) has been linked to triglyceride regulation especially in animal models. However, the relationship between circulating CTRP3 levels and obesity-related disorders in human subjects is controversial. CTRP3 can circulate in different oligomeric complexes: trimeric (<100 kDa), middle molecular weight (100–300 kDa), and high molecular weight (HMW) oligomeric complexes (>300 kDa). Previous work has identified that it is not the total amount of CTRP3 present in the serum, but the specific circulating oligomeric complexes that appear to be indicative of the relationship between CTRP3 and serum lipids levels. However, this work has not been examined in children. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the levels of different oligomeric complexes of CTRP3 and circulating lipid levels among young children (aged 7–10 years). Methods Morphometric data and serum samples were collected and analyzed from a cross-sectional population of 62 children of self-identified Hispanic origin from a community health center, between 2015 and 2016. Serum analysis included adiponectin, insulin, leptin, ghrelin, glucagon, C-reactive peptide, triglyceride, cholesterol, IL-6, TNF, and CTRP3. Correlation analyses were conducted to explore the relationships between CTRP3 and other biomarkers. Results Total CTRP3 concentrations were significantly positively correlated with total cholesterol and HDL cholesterol. Whereas, HMW CTRP3 was not significantly associated with any variable measured. Conversely, the middle molecular weight (MMW) CTRP3 was negatively correlated with triglycerides levels, and very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), insulin, and body mass index (BMI). The negative correlations between MMW CTRP3 and triglycerides and VLDLs were particularly strong (r2 = -0.826 and -0.827, respectively). Conclusion Overall, these data indicate that the circulating oligomeric state of CTRP3 and not just total CTRP3 level is important for understanding the association between CTRP3 and metabolic diseases. Further, this work indicates that MMW CTRP3 plays an important role in triglyceride and VLDL regulation which requires further study.

scholarly journals Prevalence of metabolic syndrome and the association with sociodemographic characteristics in adult population of Banja Luka

2018 ◽  
Vol 75 (5) ◽  
pp. 447-452
Author(s):  
Verica Petrovic ◽  
Gordana Tesanovic ◽  
Ljiljana Stanivuk
Keyword(s):  
Blood Pressure ◽  
Metabolic Syndrome ◽  
Adult Population ◽  
International Diabetes Federation ◽  
Density Lipoprotein ◽  
Hdl Cholesterol ◽  
Sociodemographic Characteristics ◽  
Level Of Education ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
Banja Luka

Background/Aim. Metabolic syndrome (MS) is a cluster of metabolic and hemodynamic disorders that increase the risk of developing atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes mellitus. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of MS and its components in adult population of Banja Luka and association with sociodemographic characteristics. Methods. A total of 685 participants (348 men and 337 women), aged 18 years and over, were analyzed. The diagnosis of the MS was based on definition set by the International Diabetes Federation (IDF). Results. The prevalence of the MS was high (37.5%), slightly higher in women (38.3%) than in men (36.8%), but without statistically significant difference (p = 0.686). Prevalence of each individual component of the MS in the study group was over 30% (systolic blood pressure ? 130 mmHg ? 42.0%; diastolic blood pressure ? 85 mmHg ? 31.0%; triglycerides ? 1.7 mmol/L ? 36.1%; high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol ? 1.03 for men and ? 1.29 for women ? 31.2%; glucose ? 5.6 mmol/L ? 32.8%; central obesity ? 94 cm male and ? 80 cm female ? 62.6%). The prevalence of the MS was not associated with gender, but with age. A number of participants increased with incresed age in the group with the MS with statistically significant difference compared to the group without the MS. The study showed an association between level of education and the MS. Low level of education was associated with the appearance of the MS with statistically significant differences (df = 3; p = 0.013). Association between level of education and the MS was shown in women (df = 3; p = 0.000), but not in men (df = 3; p = 0.883). Retirees and housewives were significantly present in the group with the MS, students and unemployed in the group without the MS, while employed participants showed no statistically significant difference. Conclusion: The MS was diagnosed in over one-third of adults in Banja Luka. Prevalence of MS was not associated with gender, but it was associated with age, level of education as well as with some categories of employment.

scholarly journals Validation of metabotypes identified in an Irish population in the German KORA FF4 study

2020 ◽  
Vol 79 (OCE2) ◽  
Author(s):  
Anna Riedl ◽  
Nina Wawro ◽  
Christa Meisinger ◽  
Annette Peters ◽  
Wolfgang Rathmann ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Metabolic Diseases ◽  
Large Population ◽  
Hdl Cholesterol ◽  
Population Based ◽  
Cross Sectional Study ◽  
Processed Meat ◽  
Dietary Recommendations ◽  
Cross Sectional ◽  
Metabolic Characteristics ◽  
Glucose And Lipid Metabolism

AbstractPrevious work in an Irish cross-sectional study in adults identified three metabolic subgroups (metabotypes) of individuals using k-means cluster analysis based on four fasting clinical standard parameters (triacylglycerols, total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol and glucose). We aimed to validate these metabotypes in another large population-based study. We assigned 2221 participants aged 38–88 years from the German Cooperative Health Research in the Region of Augsburg (KORA) FF4 study (2013/2014) to the three metabotype clusters identified previously by minimizing the Euclidean distances. These clusters were characterized and compared with one another by metabolic characteristics as well as by cardiometabolic disease prevalence. Further, usual dietary intake of various foods/nutrients was estimated based on a food frequency questionnaire and multiple 24-hour food lists and was investigated across clusters. We identified three metabolically distinct clusters in the KORA FF4 study. Cluster 3 represented the group of participants with the most unfavorable metabolic characteristics (e.g. parameters of glucose and lipid metabolism, inflammatory markers), followed by clusters 2 and 1. Individuals in cluster 3 had the highest prevalence of metabolic diseases. Furthermore, they were characterized by the most unfavorable diet with significantly lowest intakes of vegetables, dairy products and fibers as well as significantly highest intakes of total, red and processed meat. Our finding of distinct metabolic subgroups in the KORA FF4 study suggest a successful validation of the metabotypes originally identified based on four commonly measured clinical parameters. Based on these metabotypes, targeted dietary recommendations may be developed for metabolic disease prevention.

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