The Role of Simulation in the Development of a Fast-Actuation Solenoid C.R. Injection System

Upcoming Euro 4 and Euro 5 emission standards are increasing efforts on injection system developments in order to improve mixture quality and combustion efficiency. The target features of advanced injection system are related to their capability of operating multiple injection with a precise control of amount of fuel injected, low cycle-by-cycle variability and life drift, within flexible strategies. In order to accomplish this task, performance must be optimised since injection system concept development by acting on. The extensive use of numerical approach has been identified as a necessary integration to experiments in order to put on the market high quality injection system accomplishing strict engine control strategies. The modelling approach allows focusing the experimental campaign only on critical issues saving time and costs, furthermore it is possible to deeply understand inner phenomena that cannot be measured. The lump/ID model of the whole system built into the AMESim® code was presented in previous works: particular attention was devoted in the simulation of the electromagnetic circuits, actual fluid-dynamic forces acting on needle surfaces and discharge coefficients, evaluated by means 3D-CFD simulations. In order to assess new injection system dynamic response under multiple injection strategies reproducing actual engine operating conditions it is necessary to find to proper model settings. In this work the integration between the injector and the system model, which comprehends the pump, the pressure regulator, the rail and the connecting-pipes, will be presented. For reproducing the dynamic response of he whole system will be followed a step-by-step approach in order to prevent modelling inaccuracies. Firstly will be presented the linear analysis results performed in order to find injection system own natural frequencies. Secondly based on linear analysis results will be found proper injection system model settings for predicting dynamic response to external excitations, such as pump perturbations, pressure regulator dynamics and injection pulses. Thirdly experimental results in terms of instantaneous flow rate and integrated injected volume for different operating conditions will be presented in order to highlight the capability of the modelling methodology in addressing the new injection system design.

Sensitivity Analyses of NOx Formation in Micro-Pilot Ignited Natural Gas Engines

A sensitivity analysis of NOx formation in micro-pilot ignited natural gas dual fuel engines is performed based on a phenomenological combustion model. The model’s NOx formation mechanism incorporates a super-extended Zel’dovich mechanism (up to 43 reactions). The sensitivity analysis compares the contribution of each major reaction to NOx formation, and identifies the rate controlling NOx formation reactions. The formation rates for reactions involving NOx are also investigated to reveal the primary NOx formation paths. Results show that there are two main NOx formation paths both in the packets zone and the burned zone. The rate limiting reactions for the packets zone are identified as: O+N2=NO+NN2+HO2=NO+HNO Rate limiting reactions for the burned zone are: N2O+M=N2+O+MN2+HO2=NO+HNO Since the aforementioned reaction significantly influence the net NOx prediction, it is important that the corresponding reaction rates be determined fairly accurately. Finally, because the quasi-steady-state assumption is commonly used for certain species in NOx modeling, a transient relative error is estimated to evaluate its use. The relative error in NOx prediction with and without this assumption is of the order of 2 percent. Clearly, sensitivity analysis can provide valuable insight into understanding the possible NOx formation pathways in engines and improve the status of current prediction tools to obtain better estimates.

Numerical Analysis of Swirl Control Strategies in a Four Valve HSDI Diesel Engine

Recent four value HSDI Diesel engines are able to control the swirl intensity, in order to enhance the in-cylinder flow field at partial load without decreasing breathing capabilities at full load. Making reference to a current production engine, the purpose of this paper is to envestiage the influence of port design and flow-control strategies on both engine permeability and in-cylinder flow field. Using previously validated models, 3-D CFD simulations of the intake and compression strokes are performed in order to predict the in-cylinder flow patterns originated by the different configurations. The comparison between the two configurations in terms of airflow at full load indicates that Geometry 2 can trap 3.03% more air than Geometry 1, while the swirl intensity at IVC is reduced (−30%). The closure of one intake valve (the left one) is very effective to enhance the swirl intensity at partial load: the Swirl Ratio at IVC passes from 0.7 to 2.6 for Geometry 1, while for Geometry 2 it varies from 0.4 to 2.9.

Friction Reduction via Piston and Ring Design for an Advanced Natural-Gas Reciprocating Engine

Friction from the power cylinder represents a significant contribution to the total mechanical losses in internal combustion engines. A reduction in piston ring friction would therefore result in higher efficiency, lower fuel consumption, and reduced emissions. In this study, models incorporating piston ring dynamics and piston secondary motion with elastic skirt deformation were applied to a Waukesha natural gas power generation engine to identify the main contributors to friction within the piston and ring pack system. Based on model predictions, specific areas for friction reduction were targeted and low-friction design strategies were devised. The most significant contributors to friction were identified as the top ring, the oil control ring, and the piston skirt. Model predictions indicated that the top ring friction could be reduced by implementing a skewed barrel profile design or an upward piston groove tilt design, and oil control ring friction could be reduced by decreasing ring tension. Piston design parameters such as skirt profile, piston-to-liner clearance, and piston surface characteristics were found to have significant potential for the reduction of piston skirt friction. Designs were also developed to mitigate any adverse effects that were predicted to occur as a result of implementation of the low-friction design strategies. Specifically, an increase in wear was predicted to occur with the upward piston groove tilt design, which was eliminated by the introduction of a positive static twist on the top ring. The increase in oil consumption resulting form the reduction in the oil control ring tension was mitigated by the introduction of a negative static twist on the second ring. Overall, the low-friction design strategies were predicted to have potential to reduce piston ring friction by 35% and piston friction by up to 50%. This would translate to an improvement in brake thermal efficiency of up to 2%, which would result in a significant improvement in fuel economy and a substantial reduction in emissions over the life of the engine.

Simulation of Extended Expansion Lean Burn Spark Ignition Engine

This paper deals with Numerical Study of 4-stoke, Single cylinder, Spark Ignition, Extended Expansion Lean Burn Engine. Engine processes are simulated using thermodynamic and global modeling techniques. In the simulation study following process are considered compression, combustion, and expansion. Sub-models are used to include effect due to gas exchange process, heat transfer and friction. Wiebe heat release formula was used to predict the cylinder pressure, which was used to find out the indicated work done. The heat transfer from the cylinder, friction and pumping losses also were taken into account to predict the brake mean effective pressure, brake thermal efficiency and brake specific fuel consumption. Extended Expansion Engine operates on Otto-Atkinson cycle. Late Intake Valve Closure (LIVC) technique is used to control the load. The Atkinson cycle has lager expansion ratio than compression ratio. This is achieved by increasing the geometric compression ratio and employing LIVC. Simulation result shows that there is an increase in thermal efficiency up to a certain limit of intake valve closure timing. Optimum performance is attained at 90 deg intake valve closure (IVC) timing further delaying the intake valve closure reduces the engine performance.

Oil Ring Design Influence on Lube Oil Consumption of SI Engines

2-piece and 3-piece oil ring designs were tested in dynamometer and vehicles in order to evaluate the ring type influence on lube oil consumption of spark ignited (SI) engines. The dynamometer tests were executed according a typical durability cycle of SI engines. This cycle is predominantly in full load conditions. Under these conditions, 2-piece oil ring design showed lower lube oil consumption than 3-piece. Two different vehicle tests were also run: urban and mountain circuits. The purpose of the urban circuit test was to simulate the actual use of the engine. The mountain circuit was selected to verify the rings behavior under motoring conditions. In vehicle tests, 3-piece showed lower or equivalent oil consumption than 2 piece, which disagreed with the dynamometer tests. This difference can be explained by the better side sealing capacity of the 3-piece oil ring. On the other hand, 2-piece oil rings present better conformability, important for applications with larger bore distortion. So, the most appropriate application of oil ring type depends on the load and speed conditions, in which the engine would predominantly operate. Ring wear and thermal stability are compared using bench and vehicle tests.

The Friction Reduction With a New Two-Piece Spring Retainer Design and Light Weight Valve Train Components in SI Engines

The reduction of friction in the valve train of four-stroke combustion engines is a promising opportunity to decrease fuel consumption and to improve pollutant emissions. The possibilities are reviewed by comparing light weight and newly developed components. The friction in the valve train causes a loss from the BMEP by about 0.2 to 0.4 bar. To measure friction forces in this range requires constant and well maintained environmental conditions. The viscosity as well as the pressure and temperature of the lubricating oil have a big influence on the friction. Due to the valve spring forces a strong fluctuation of the cam torque appears. This makes it very demanding to set up the measurement equipment in a correct way. Measurement equipment which is able to gauge with sufficient accuracy may be overloaded by the effects caused by the spring forces. Based on this special care is necessary during the first ramp up of the cylinder head. It has to be modified to avoid overloading the measurement equipment. One possibility to achieve lower friction between the valve stem and the valve guide is the reduction of the lateral forces which are caused by the asymmetry of the valve spring. Using recently new developed components these detrimental forces within a valve train can be reduced which leads to lower friction losses. In addition the wear between the valve train components can be reduced. In detail this can be accomplished by using two-piece spring retainer which allows a tilted position of the spring end during the valve lift and by this only allow axial forces to act onto the valve. The friction in a valve train using a direct acting mechanical tappet is mainly caused by the sliding contact of the cam on the tappet face. To lower the friction in this area the spring forces have to be reduced. This requires valve train components with lower masses and weaker springs. Therefore valves, spring retainers and tappets made from light weight alloys where developed. The mass of these light weight components could be reduced by more than 50%. Detailed measurements are performed and the results will be presented. As a conclusion it can be seen, what light weight components in the valve train of four stroke engines can contribute to a torque reduction in innovative valve trains.

Reduction of Emissions From a High Speed Passenger Ferry

Emissions from marine vessels are being scrutinized as a major contributor to the total particulate matter (TPM), oxides of sulfur (SOx), and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) environmental loading. Fuel sulfur control is the key to SOx reduction but NOx and PM production are primarily engine design dependent. Significant reductions in the emissions from on-road vehicles have been achieved in the last decade and emissions from these vehicles will be reduced by another order of magnitude in the next five years. These improvements have served to emphasize the need to reduce emissions from other mobile sources, including off-road equipment, locomotives, and marine vessels. Diesel-powered vessels of interest include ocean-going vessels with low- and medium-speed engines, as well as smaller vessels with medium- and high-speed engines. A recent study examined to use of intake water injection (WIS) and ultra low sulfur diesel (ULSD) fuel to reduce the emissions from a high-speed passenger ferry in southern California. One of the four Detroit Diesel 12V92 two-stroke, high-speed engines that power the ferry was instrumented to collect intake airflow rate, fuel flow rate, shaft torque, and shaft speed. Engine speed and shaft torque were uniquely linked for given vessel draft and prevailing wind and sea conditions. A raw exhaust gas sampling system was utilized to measure the concentration of NOx, carbon dioxide (CO2), and oxygen (O2), with a mini dilution tunnel sampling a slipstream from the raw exhaust was used to collect TPM on 70 mm filters. The emissions data were processed to yield brake-specific mass results. The emissions measurement system that was employed allowed for redundant data to be collected for quality assurance and quality control. To acquire the data, the ferry was operated at five different steady-state speeds. Three modes were executed in the open sea off Oceanside, CA, idle and harbor modes were also selected for the test matrix. Data have showed that the use of ULSD along with water injection (WIS) could significantly reduce the emissions of NOx and PM while not affecting fuel consumption or engine performance, when compared to baseline marine diesel fuel. The results showed that a normal 40% reduction in TPM was realized when switching from marine diesel fuel to ULSD. A small reduction in NOx was also shown between the marine fuel and the ULSD. The implementation of the WIS reduced NOx by 11% to 17%, depending upon the operating condition. With the WIS, TPM was reduced by a few percentage points, which was close to the confidence level of the measurements.

Preliminary Thermal Analyses on Diesel Converter Overheating

The use of oxidation catalytic converters (OCC) in Diesel engines has proved to be an effective method to reduce emissions of total hydrocarbons (THC), carbon monoxide (CO), and the soluble organic fractions (SOF) of particulate matter (PM). However, the exothermal reaction effected by the oxidation of THC, CO, and especially the soot accumulated in the converters impose a risk of catalytic flow bed overheating that subsequently results in catalyst failure and may cause safety concerns. This paper presents a one-dimensional transient model that uses an energy balance method to analyze the overheating scenario when considering combustible gas reaction, clogged soot burning, and active flow control for a number of Diesel aftertreatment devices. The monolith temperature profiles were simulated by varying the exhaust gas temperature, oxygen concentration, and flow rate. Simulation results indicated that the potential of overheating elevates with increases in combustible gas concentration, soot loading, oxygen concentration, and engine exhaust temperature. The impacts of active control, such as flow reversal control, on converter overheating have also been investigated therein.

High-T NOx Sensing Elements Using Conductive Oxides and Pt

Development of NOx sensing elements intended for operation at T ∼600 °C are described. The elements were fabricated by depositing co-planar La1-x Srx BO3 (B = Cr, Fe) and Pt electrodes on yttria-stabilized zirconia substrates. Characterization of the elements included response to NO2 and NO as well as the [O2] dependence of the NO2 response. Much stronger (∼ 40 mV for 450 ppm NO2 in 7 vol% O2 at 600 °C) sensing responses were observed for NO2 than NO, indicating these elements are best suited for detection of NO2. Pronounced asymmetries were observed between the NO2 step response and recovery times for the elements, with temperature being the primary variable governing the recovery times in the temperature range 500–700 °C.