Space Modeling of Problem Solving Strategies of “Prisoner's Dilemma”

An iterated version of the game "Prisoner's Dilemma" is used as a model of cooperation largely due to the wide range of strategies that the subjects can use. The problem of the effec-tiveness of strategies for solving the Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma (IPD) is most often considered from the point of view of information models, where strategies do not take into account the relationship that arise when real people play. Some of these strategies are obvious, others depend upon social context. In our paper, we use one of the promising directions in the development of studying IPD strategies – the use of artificial neural networks. We use neural networks as a modeling tool and as a part of game environment. The main goal of our work is to build an information model that predicts the behavior of an individual person as well as group of people in the situation of solving of social dilemma. It takes into account social relationship, including those caused by experimental influence, gender differences, and individual differences in the strategy for solving cognitive tasks. The model demonstrates the transition of individual actions into socially determined behavior. Evaluation of the effect of socialization associated with the procedure of the game provides additional information about the effectiveness and characteristics of the experimental impact.The paper defines the minimum unit of analysis of the IPD player's strategy in a group, the identity with which can be considered as a variable. It discusses the influence of the experi-mentally formed group identity on the change of preferred strategies in social dilemmas. We use the possibilities of neural networks as means of categorizing the results of the prisoner's iterative dilemma in terms of the strategy applied by the player, as well as social factors. We define the patterns of changes in the IPD player's strategy before and after socialization are determined. The paper discusses the questions of real player's inclination to use IPD solution strategies in their pure form or to use the same strategy before and after experimental inter-ventions related to social identity formation. It is shown that experimentally induced socialization can be considered as a mechanism for increasing the degree of certainty in the choice of strategies when solving IPD task. It is found out that the models based on neural networks turn out to be more efficient after experi-mentally evoked social identity in a group of 6 people; and the models based on neural net-works are least effective in the case of predicting a subject's belonging to a gender group. When solving IPD problems by real people, it turns out to be possible to talk about generalized strategies that take into account not only the evolutionary properties of «pure» strategies, but also reflect various social factors.

Mental Health Problems and Help-Seeking among Adolescents

The mental health problems among adolescents have long-lasting effects throughout life. However, research evidence indicates that only 10–30% of adolescents who needed mental health care had received specialized help. The present study reports the prevalence of mental health problems and help-seeking among adolescents, taking into account gender and age differences. The sample included 1752 adolescents (47 % boys,) aged 12-17 years. Data were collected on in two Siberian cities (Novosibirsk and Krasnoyarsk) using an international self-report questionnaire developed for the school-based Eurasian Child Mental Health Study. Participants were recruited from 18 schools, students completed questionnaires anonymously during school lessons. Statistical analysis included analysis of variance (ANOVA), multiple regression analysis, and crosstabs using a chi-squared test. The level of emotional and behavioral problems in Siberian adolescents was slightly higher than that found in European and Asian countries. Twenty three percent of adolescents reported frequent headaches (at least once a week), 11 % reported frequent abdominal pain and 14% suffered from frequent sleep disturbances (3–5 times a week or more). Girls reported a significantly higher level of problems than boys, with the largest gender differences for emotional problems, recurrent pains and sleep disturbances. Weekly consumption of alcohol and daily use of nicotine among boys was more common than among girls (3 % and 6 %, respectively), whereas less frequent use of alcohol and nicotine was commoner in girls (16 %) than in boys (10 %); 7 % of boys and girls had tried drugs at least once. Suicidal thoughts were reported by 22 % of adolescents, 6 % reported suicide attempts and 6 % reported repeated self-harm. One third of adolescents considered seeking outside help and 9 % had actually done so. Girls reported more help-seeking than boys; older girls sought help more often than younger and middle-aged ones. Around one third of adolescents sought help from their relatives; 26 % from friends, the Internet or other non-professional sources; 5 % reported seeking help from a doctor or nurse, and 3 % from a psychologist. The most important independent predictors of seeking help were emotional symptoms, suicidal ideation and hyperactivity/inattention. The results suggest a need for future investigation of the factors associated with help-seeking behavior among adolescents. It is also necessary to develop mental health promotion programs for adolescents, interventions to improve mental health literacy and access to mental health care.

Apathy and Academic Failure among Students: Results of a Pilot Longitudinal Study

The current study was aimed to examine the impact of psychological adjustment / maladjustment on the academic performance of Russian university students. Previous studies have shown that academic performance is closely related to alienation from study, study engagement, academic motivation, perceived stress, academic control, and boredom proneness. Some researchers also have suggested that adolescent apathy may be the risk factor for academic failure among university students. In turn, the American psychologist R. Handelman defined adolescent apathy as a specific state of lack of goal-setting, energy and interest, indifference to changes and experience of difficulties in making decisions in young adults [27]. In September 2019, 103 students (73 females and 30 males) aged 16 to 21 years from several Moscow universities filled out instruments assessing adolescent apathy, alienation from study, study engagement, academic motivation, perceived stress, academic control, and boredom proneness. The study was conducted at seminars in psychological disciplines. All study participants received bonus points in these disciplines. In January 2019, based on the results of the examination session, an average score was calculated for each study participant. This score became a criterion for academic performance of university students. There were no statistically significant age and gender differences in the scores of psychological adjustment / maladjustment. The one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that adolescent apathy was the single indicator that affects the academic performance of university students. Thus, the higher scores of adolescent apathy university students showed at the beginning of the academic year, the lower the average scores they received for the first exam session. Based on these data, it was concluded that adolescent apathy is a risk factor for academic failure and can serve as a target for preventive and interventional measures related to academic failure among Russian university students. Currently, in foreign practice, programs and recommendations are being developed and implemented for teachers of higher educational institutions who are faced with the adolescent apathy outcomes. Perhaps this study, which has proved the importance of adolescent apathy in the context of academic failure among university students, will be the first step towards the development and implementation of similar programs and recommendations for Russian educational institutions.

Influence of Irrational Beliefs and Sensitivity to a Person on Future Psychology Students’ Propensity to Coercion or Nonviolence

The relevance of the problem is due to the importance of identifying factors that determine the propensity of students to coercion or nonviolence, creating psychological and pedagogical conditions for the formation of the socionomic sphere of nonviolent competencies for future specialists at universities. The theoretical basis of the study was the position of nonviolence as a daily practice of interaction, by which we understand the ability of a person to choose from a number of possible alternatives that carry the least charge of coercion. The aim of the work was to study the influence of irrational beliefs and sensitivity to a person (interest, empathy, understanding and assistance) on the students’ tendency to coercion, manipulation, non-violence and non-interference in the processes of interaction with people. The hypothesis was tested that the tendency of students to coercion, manipulation, and noninterference will be due to expressed irrational beliefs and low level of sensitivity to a person and the tendency to non-violence will be explained by the absence of irrational beliefs and a high level of sensitivity to a person. The study involved 125 students of pedagogical and psychological faculties of the Moscow Humanitarian and Cherepovets State universities. The authors used questionnaires to identify the positions of interaction among students and sensitivity to a person, as well as a list of irrational beliefs proposed by A. Beck and A. Freeman. It is established that the tendency to both coercion and manipulation are determined by the beliefs of anti-social type and low sensitivity to the person. The tendency to manipulate the narcissistic beliefs, high interest in people and understanding them, at the same time the tendency to non-violence and non-interference are determined by beliefs of avoidant and dependent types with a low level of understanding people. And a tendency to non-interference is determined by beliefs of dependent type with unexpressed orientation on helping. The tendency to nonviolence is determined by the high sensitivity to a person and the absence of irrational beliefs of antisocial, passive-aggressive and narcissistic types. As a result, the conclusion is made about the need to form purposefully the ability to nonviolent interaction among students, which should include the work on awareness and overcoming irrational beliefs and the development of sensitivity to a person. The obtained results can be used in practical work with students on the formation of their nonviolent competencies.

Phenomenon of the Internet Immersion: Definition and Measurement

The purpose of the study was to justify the essence of the “Internet immersion” phenomenon and to create a standardized method for its measurement. A comparative analysis of approaches to human behavior on the Internet environment and existing diagnostic methods has revealed a significant variety of categories and definitions used. At the same time, there is no definition that: first, characterizes the degree and quality of user's Internet activity; second, is free from negative and clinical connotations; and, third, describes a wider time range of Internet usage than the actual state of immersion. The authors substantiate the possibility of studying the phenomenon of the Internet immersion through the category of disposition. It consists of the readiness to use technical means and informational resources of the Internet to solve problems in various types of activities and communication. The authors identify traditional components in the structure of the Internet immersion phenomenon. These are, first of all, a cognitive component, represented by digital competence self-assessment; then, an affective component, represented by motivation and emotional and value-based attitude towards the Internet; and a behavioral component, represented by the amount of digital consumption. Based on this definition, it was possible to construct a compact 9-block “Index of the Internet immersion” questionnaire. Its standardization was conducted on the sample of 712 adolescents, aged from 11 to 17. Using the factor analysis, the structure of the questionnaire was identified. The first factor includes questions that relate to the time spent on the Internet and signs of dependence on it. The second factor includes questions that reveal the activity component and emotional attitude to the Internet. The third factor includes questions about experience and self-assessment of digital competence. The advantage of the “Index of the Internet immersion” questionnaire is a fairly high reliability for internal consistency of scales throughout the questionnaire. We also confirmed the sufficient convergent validity of the “Internet environment immersion Index” method with the “Scale of Problematic Internet Usage” by A.A. Gerasimova, A.B. Kholmogorova (adapted version of Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale (GPIUS) by S. Caplan) and the Internet Addiction Test (IAT, K. Young), modified by V. A. Loskutova. This indicates its validity as an independent tool that does not duplicate other tools for semantically similar phenomena measurement. In the conditions of forced self-isolation that have developed in our country, the method of the Internet immersion diagnostics as an adequate and theoretically justified tool will allow us to study changes in the emotional state and behavior of teenagers on the Internet.

Theoretical and Psychometric Analysis of the “Where I Am” Questionnaire

The subjective (mental) space (MS) is specified as a particular area of research. The issue of its operationalization and measurement are put forward. A mathematical prototype of MS has been proposed. In a simplified form, the mathematical space conceives of as Euclidean, metric, and linear. It extends to the MS. The operationalization of its measurements consisted in the construction of the "Where I am" questionnaire (WIQ). Three main properties of the WIQ were as follows. First, physical descriptions of space were in use as metaphors for the MS. Second, 4 scales, namely, “height,” “width,” “length,” and “volume,” specified the WIQ. Third, a procedure like a semantic differential administered the WIQ’s items to participants. Raw data were gathered from a sample consisting 177 students, men and women aged from 17 to 26. Participants expressed the degree of agreement with each item of the WIQ on the seven point grade ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree". Ultimately, the WIQ consisted of 36 items, namely, 9 items per the scale “height,” 9 items per the scale “width,” 7 items per the scale “length,” and 11 items per the scale “volume.” Descriptive statistics included means, standard deviations, chi square to define normality of variables, t test to as-sess differences between men and women. Psychometric reliability of the WIQ was estimated by intercorrelations of items in scales, Cronbach's alpha, omega, split half reliability, re test, as well as the WIQ’s discrimination. Exploratory factor analysis provided an estimation of the WIQ’s construct validity. Internal convergent and discriminant validity of the WIQ was gained by comparisons of items’ correlations with ‘own’ and ‘others’ scales. Contrast groups on creative thinking and intelligence computed external criterion validity of the WIQ by 1 way ANOVA. Obtained data were as follows. Extraction to specify the WIQ on above scales was psychometrically justified. The WIQ showed good measures of reliability. The WIQ yielded a 3 factorized structure as most evident of its construct validity and consistent with expected theoretical suggestions, despite of items of the scales “width” and “volume” entered the same factor. Findings maintained significant internal convergent and discriminant validity of the WIQ. It possessed either external criterion validity Creative fluency, originality, and fluid intelligence produced significant effects on the WIQ’s scales. Thus, the WIQ can be reasonable in scientific and applied studies.

Association of the Individualizing and Binding Moral Foundations with Conceptions of Motherland in Russia

Patriotism and attitude to the motherland attract much interest of researchers in the field of social sciences, although psychological foundations of these phenomena have not been sufficiently studied. On the basis of Moral Foundations Theory (by J. Haidt) we hypothesized that the characteristics of the moral sphere may be associated with some ideas about the motherland. In particular, binding moral foundations (including loyalty, authority and purity) which are more typical for conservatives should support positive patriotic ideas about the homeland. The low level of binding moral foundations can be related with a critical attitude towards the motherland, the presence of negative assessments of their country. This assump-tion is supported by the results of past studies of patriotism among individuals with different ideological views. The individualizing moral foundations dominating among liberals can be associated with a less global and narrower view of the motherland, which is linked with con-cepts of “family” and “home” rather than “society” or “country”. The aim of this study was to analyze the association between the individualizing and binding moral foundations with the content of ideas about the motherland. The important task of the study was to develop the Russian version of the moral foundations dictionary, which is necessary for analyzing the moral content of ideas about the motherland. To test the hypotheses we conducted a paper-pencil and online survey, obtained data included the answers on Moral Foundations Question-naire and textual answers characterizing the image of the motherland. The sample comprised 831 people (72% women) from 11 regions of Russia. Text responses were processed via com-puter content analysis in the LIWC program (by J. Pennebaker) using the moral foundations dictionary (all categories) and the general dictionary (10 categories most relevant to the prob-lem). To analyze the relations between the results of content analysis and MFQ questionnaire we calculated correlations of the individualizing and binding moral foundations with the presence or absence of each category in the participants’ responses. The results of the correlation analysis indicate that the individualizing moral foundations supports relatively narrow ideas about the motherland, associated with family and home, while people with a high level of binding moral foundations associate the motherland mostly with society and religion. Binding moral founda-tions support a positive image of the motherland, which is manifested in the more frequent use of positive assessments and avoidance of negative evaluations. Persons with a high level of binding moral foundations tend to ignore negative phenomena in the country, reflecting a violation of the individualizing moral norms (care and fairness). In particular, they less often mention violations of human rights and the poverty of the country's inhabitants. The necessary condition analysis revealed the effect of binding moral foundations as a necessary but insuffi-cient condition for maintaining a positive image of the motherland and the absence of negative ideas about it.

Stress Management and Resilience as a Psychological Resource in Case of Gelotophobia in the Context of Students’ Psychological Health

In the article the manifestation of gelotophobia (fear of being laughed at) in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd-year students aged 17–22 years is described. The aim of the present study was to in-vestigate the manifestation of the fear of being laughed at and its influence on the components of students’ psychological health as a factor of predisposition to mental health disorders. According to this aim, three tasks were set. The first task was to identify the differences in gelotophobia depending on the duration of education and gender. The second task was to establish a link between personality traits and the level of gelotophobia. The third task was to observe the relationship between components of psychological health (resilience, stress management) and the level of gelotophobia. To identify the level of fear of being laughed at in a sample of students, we set the scales of the "GELOPH-15" questionnaire and specified them as low, moderate and high gelotophobia scores. Then, using the frequency analysis of students’ answers to this questionnaire, we found out that most responses indicated a moderate level of gelotophobia (71%), only 16% of answers indicate a low level, and 10% of answers present a high level of fear of being laughed at. Also 3% of students did not answer this ques-tionnaire. The results of this study demonstrated that gelotophobia is more typical for female than for male students. The data also showed that the manifestation of gelotophobia didn’t correlate to the duration of education. A comparative analysis using the Student's t-test in the female and male subgroups identified that young women in socially significant cases could hardly tolerate negative situations. Young men, on the other hand, were able to cope with stressful situations if they had internal balance. Using the Spearman rank test, a correlation analysis was performed between the scales of the characterological questionnaire and the level of gelotophobia. A relationship with the total score of gelotophobia, as well as with the average and low score of gelotophobia was found. No correlation with a high score of gelotophobia was found. The analysis of the results obtained showed that resilience and its components (involvement, control and risk acceptance) helps to reduce stress and the influ-ence of negative factors that cause fear in socially significant situations. The results corre-spond to the above stated aims and tasks. Further work in this direction will make it possible to develop a program of psychological support for students.

Authentication of Educational Practices in Online Learning

The aim of online learning is to help forward the individualization of educational practices and self-determination of a student. From the technological point of view, it is supposed to reduce the costs on the teacher’s presence in educational process (it is not a teacher but a plat-form which holds the knowledge) and to increase investments in the student’s presence (a student completes the given knowledge with his own senses, motives, values and creativity). An important phase of educational process is rating. According to the trend of “high technolo-gies” (technologies that minimize the human presence in management) we may say that there is also a trend to increase the level of rating. In online learning environment we rate not only the results and actions of a student, but also the level of his abilities or competence and the means of rating authenticity. The article discusses the data received on using the “Self-attestation practice” online course. It is a means of final assessment for students who complete the BA in psychology. By the way of variance analysis, we verified the hypothesis that the high level of abstract thinking, high coefficient of categorization, high level of creativity, field independence and reflexivity on cognitive styles are favor for intellectual productivity in scientific, research and creative areas. A measured set of level characteristics for intellectual products is transformed into a com-plex of observed language qualities. The high level of abstract thinking is demonstrated in speech coherence, in discourse consistency. The high coefficient of categorization is demon-strated in the ability to interpret texts into different languages and scales. High creativity level can be seen in making preference for difficult, challenging creative tasks. Field independence and reflexivity is demonstrated in the ability to make an individual educational track. These characteristics are markers of successful study, including online education. They allow us esti-mating each student’s involvement into professional studies and defining the levels of intellectual success, predicting the model of individual learning environment (individual learning track).

What is the Sense of Life, and How Can We Study It? Review of the monograph: Sources of the sense of life. A new method of personality psychodiagnostics, by K.V Karpinskij

The article is a review of the book "Sources of the meaning of life: a new method of personality psychodiagnostics" by the Belarusian psychologist K.V. Karpinskij. It is argued that the meaning of life became the subject of special psychological research only in the 20th century. In recent years, there have been many breakthroughs in this area, and undoubted progress is visible. There was a transition to the interpretation of the meaning of life as a systemic, that means, in other words, multicomponent and multilevel mental education. In his previous works K.V. Karpinskij subjected the problem of the psychology of the meaning of life to a comprehensive analysis. This book has no analogues among the observable thematic literature and contains new theoretical ideas, original methodological solutions and rich factual material, which together form a new look at the key methodological issues of the psychology of the meaning of life. First of all, this is a question about the subject and method of research. Despite the fact that the study of the psychology of the meaning of life is largely represented in foreign psychology, the author of the monograph consistently adheres to the methodology of Russian psychology. The book offers the author's methodology "Sources of the meaning of life", which was created with a full understanding of the advantages and disadvantages, opportunities and limitations of existing foreign analogues. Being a diagnostic complex in its composition, this technique has incorporated proven diagnostic techniques, as well as completely new techniques for studying the meaning of life. The methodology clearly surpasses the existing tools in its diagnostic (research) capabilities.