Effects of probiotics-encapsulated live feed on growth and survival of juvenile Clarias batrachus (Linnaeus, 1758) after differential exposure to pathogenic bacteria

2018 ◽  
Vol 16 (1) ◽  
pp. 105-113 ◽  
Author(s):  
A Dey ◽  
K Ghosh ◽  
N Hazra
Keyword(s):  
Pathogenic Bacteria ◽  
Experimental Period ◽  
Clarias Batrachus ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Continuous Exposure ◽  
Protective Effects ◽  
Growth And Survival ◽  
Treatment Groups ◽  
Live Feed ◽  
Differential Exposure

Growth and survival of Clarias batrachus juveniles (10-day old) fed probiotic Bacillus cereus (KR809412) encapsulated live feed (chironomid larvae) have been evaluated after differential exposure to the pathogenic Aeromonas hydrophila (MTCC 1739). Catfish juveniles were stocked at a density of 30 fish per tank in five experimental groups (T1-T5) along with a control group in triplicate and fed twice @ 5% of body weight day-1 for four weeks. Groups T1 and T2 were fed probiotic-encapsulated (PR) or pathogen-inoculated (PGN) live feed respectively, for initial three weeks. During this period groups T3 (PGN-PR-PR), T4 (PR-PGN-PR), and T5 (PR-PR-PGN) were differentially exposed to the pathogen. Live feed without probiotic and pathogen was offered to the control group throughout the experimental period and all other treatment groups (T1-T5) during the 4th week. Continuous exposure to probiotics in group T1 resulted in significantly higher (P<0.05) specific growth rate (SGR, % d-1) and survivability than other groups, whereas, pathogen exposed and probiotic deprived group (T2) noticed with the lowest SGR and the highest mortality. Among other treatment groups (T3, T4 and T5), group T4 resulted in improved SGR and survivability. The coefficient (r value) of 0.867 along with regression slope suggested a positive correlation (0.01 levels) between RNA: DNA and SGR. The study might suggest protective effects of probiotic B. cereus in pathogen exposed C. batrachus juveniles.SAARC J. Agri., 16(1): 105-113 (2018)

Effect of chedu and mattha on growth performance of Murrah buffalo calves

2016 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ramesh Kumar ◽  
Sanjay Kumar ◽  
Jyoti Palod ◽  
Himani Tewari ◽  
Balwan Singh
Keyword(s):  
Body Weight ◽  
Health Status ◽  
Growth Performance ◽  
Research Work ◽  
Experimental Period ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Buffalo Calves ◽  
Early Puberty ◽  
Murrah Buffalo ◽  
Treatment Groups

The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of chedu and mattha on growth performance of Murrah buffalo calves. To assess the effect of chedu and mattha on growth rate, 20 growing buffalo calves of around 1 year of age and approximately of same weights were selected and were divided into 4 treatment groups having 5 animals in each group. The animals had access to ad libitum berseem hay as the basal roughage T0 (Control), T1 (Administration of mattha @ 2% of body weight with salt @ 0.5% of mattha), T2 (Application of chedu on their body @ 150 g per animal), T3 (Administration of mattha and application of chedu). Body weight of all buffalo calves was recorded at 15 days interval during the experimental period. From 75th day of experiment, significant effect (P<0.05) was observed in body weight, heart girth and height at withers of treatment groups as compared to control group whereas, body length and paunch girth showed significant effect (P<0.05) on 90th day of experiment. The results further indicated that use of chedu and mattha improved the health status of the calves and helped to attain a comparatively higher body weight and an early puberty. It can be concluded on the basis of findings of present research work that the use of chedu and mattha may be recommended for supplementation of calves’ diet, as it improves the health status of the calves and helps in the attainment of higher body weight and an early onset of puberty in the calves.

scholarly journals Modulatory Effect of Fermented Papaya Extracts on Mammary Gland Hyperplasia Induced by Estrogen and Progestin in Female Rats

2017 ◽  
Vol 2017 ◽  
pp. 1-11 ◽  
Author(s):  
Zhenqiang You ◽  
Junying Sun ◽  
Feng Xie ◽  
Zhiqin Chen ◽  
Sheng Zhang ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Mammary Gland ◽  
Oxidative Dna Damage ◽  
Mammary Glands ◽  
Estradiol Benzoate ◽  
Female Rats ◽  
Control Group ◽  
High Dose ◽  
Protective Effects ◽  
Treatment Groups ◽  
Group A

Fermented papaya extracts (FPEs) are obtained by fermentation of papaya by Aspergillus oryzae and yeasts. In this study, we investigated the protective effects of FPEs on mammary gland hyperplasia induced by estrogen and progestogen. Rats were randomly divided into 6 groups, including a control group, an FPE-alone group, a model group, and three FPE treatment groups (each receiving 30, 15, or 5 ml/kg FPEs). Severe mammary gland hyperplasia was induced upon estradiol benzoate and progestin administration. FPEs could improve the pathological features of the animal model and reduce estrogen levels in the serum. Analysis of oxidant indices revealed that FPEs could increase superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activities, decrease malondialdehyde (MDA) level in the mammary glands and serum of the animal models, and decrease the proportion of cells positive for the oxidative DNA damage marker 8-oxo-dG in the mammary glands. Additionally, estradiol benzoate and progestin altered the levels of serum biochemical compounds such as aspartate transaminase (AST), total bilirubin (TBIL), and alanine transaminase (ALT), as well as hepatic oxidant indices such as SOD, GSH-Px, MDA, and 8-oxo-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-oxo-dG). These indices reverted to normal levels upon oral administration of a high dose of FPEs. Taken together, our results indicate that FPEs can protect the mammary glands and other visceral organs from oxidative damage.

scholarly journals Protective Effects of Myrtus communis Linn Fruit and Leaf Extracts on Isoproterenol-Induced Heart Failure in Rat

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Nahid Aboutaleb ◽  
Fataneh Hashem-Dabaghian ◽  
Azinmehr Elahian Boroujeni ◽  
Asie Shojaii
Keyword(s):  
Oxidative Stress ◽  
Heart Failure ◽  
Cardiac Fibrosis ◽  
Experimental Period ◽  
Stress Factors ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Alcoholic Extract ◽  
Protective Effects ◽  
Myrtus Communis ◽  
Leaf Extracts

Myrtus communis Linn. (MC) is a cardiotonic plant in traditional Persian medicine. This study was conducted to evaluate the protective effect of MC on isoproterenol-induced heart failure (HF) in rats. Isoproterenol was injected subcutaneously in all groups except the control group for 4 consecutive days to induce myocardial injury in male Wistar rats. In the case of treatment groups, the animals were treated with different doses of the hydro-alcoholic extract of MC fruit or leaves (150, 300, and 700 mg/kg), and were compared with healthy and HF rats. In order to evaluate cardiac function, echocardiography was performed on day 28 after treatment. MC fruit and leaf extracts were administered to all groups except the healthy control group for 28 days by gavage. At the end of the experimental period, the animals were sacrificed and the left ventricle regions of tissue hearts were collected to measure the levels of oxidative stress factors (MDA, SOD, GSH) using ELISA methods. Cardiac fibrosis was evaluated by Mason’s trichrome staining. Hematoxylin-eosin staining was used to assess histopathological changes in cardiac structure.  Our results showed that administration of MC fruit and leaf extracts significantly reduced the MDA level and increased SOD and GSH levels in treated HF rats compared to the HF group (P<0.05). In addition, MC mitigated fibrosis and improved cardiac histological changes compared to the HF group. Collectively, our findings show that MC can be considered as a good candidate to provide cardioprotective effects in HF rats through reduction of oxidative stress and myocardial fibrosis.

scholarly journals PENGARUH PEMBERIAN Lactobacillus TERHADAP GAMBARAN MIKROSKOPIS MUKOSA USUS HALUS TIKUS WISTAR (Rattus norvegicus) YANG DIINFEKSI DENGAN Escherichia coli

2013 ◽  
Vol 1 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
Steviany Towoliu
Keyword(s):  
Escherichia Coli ◽  
Wistar Rats ◽  
Pathogenic Bacteria ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Group Iii ◽  
Treatment Groups ◽  
E Coli ◽  
Group 4 ◽  
Group I ◽  
Microscopic Features

Abstract: E. coli is part of the normal flora of the human and animal intestine and is commonly non pathogenic. However, one of the serotypes of this bacteria, which is enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), can cause primary infection on the intestine such diarrhea.  The growth of pathogenic bacteria in diarrheal patients can be inhibited by Lactobacillus.  Lactobacillus can function as probiotic which can affect the immune system of the digestive canals.  In addition, Lactobacillus also produce mucus  which can act as barrier to the pathogens.  The objective of this study was to reveal the effects of the administration of Lactobacillus on the microscopic features of the mucosa of the intestine of wistar rats infected by Escherichia coli.  This study was a laboratory experimental research employing 16 wistar rats divided into the control group (4 rats) and three treatment groups (12 rats) consisting of 4 rats each.  Results showed that; in group I the histological features were normal, in group II part of the epithelium of the mucosa showed erosion, dilatation of the capillary vessels, and many lymphosites were observed, in group III the epithelium of the mucosa was intact and the number of lymphosites was liitle, and in group IV the surface of the epithelium was intact, the presence of cell regeneration indicated by the increase number of goblet cells and a small number of  lymphocyes. Conclusions: The administration of after infection by E. coli has benefial effects indicated by the improvement of epithelial cells and the absence of denudation of the epithelium of the intestine. Keywords: E.coli, Lactobacillus, intestinal mucosa.   Abstrak: E.coli merupakan flora normal usus halus manusia dan hewan umumnya tidak menyebabkan penyakit.  Namun salah satu serotipe E.coli yaitu E.coli Enteropatogenik (EPEK) bersifat patogen dan dapat menyebabkan infeksi primer pada usus misalnya diare.  Pertumbuhan bakteri patogen pada pasien diare dapat dihambat oleh Lactobacillus. Lactobacillus merupakan probiotik yang akan mempengaruhi sistem imun saluran cerna serta memproduksi mukus yang berfungsi sebagai penghalang saluran cerna terhadap bakteri patogen.  Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk melihat efek pemberian Lactobacillus terhadap gambaran mikroskopis mukosa usus halus tikus wistar yang diinfeksi dengan Escherichia coli.  Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian eksperimental laboratorik.  Subjek penelitian terdiri dari 16 ekor tikur wistar yang dibagi dalam kelompok kontrol (4 ekor) dan kelompok  perlakuan (12 ekor) dibagi dalam 3 kelompok masing-masing 4 ekor.  Hasil penelitian kelompok I dengan gambaran histologik jaringan usus normal, kelompok II sebagian epitel mukosa usus halus terlihat erosi,  ada pelebaran pembuluh darah kapiler, dan banyak limfosit, kelompok III dengan permukaan epitel mukosa yang utuh dan jumlah limfosit sedikit, dan kelompok IV dengan permukaan epitel yang utuh, adanya regenerasi sel ditandai dengan bertambahnya sel goblet, dan sedikit limfosit.  Simpulan: Pemberian Lactobacillus setelah diberikan E.coli memberi efek yang baik berupa perbaikan sel epitel permukaan dan tidak terlihat denudasi epitel permukaan usus halus. Kata Kunci: E.coli, Lactobacillus, mukosa usus halus.

scholarly journals The sequential feeding of growing chickens

1975 ◽  
Vol 34 (1) ◽  
pp. 113-118 ◽  
Author(s):  
R. M. Gous ◽  
J. J. Du Preez
Keyword(s):  
Body Weight ◽  
Food Intake ◽  
Fish Meal ◽  
Experimental Period ◽  
Sole Source ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Sunflower Meal ◽  
Fasting Period ◽  
Treatment Groups ◽  
Feeding And Fasting

1. Male chickens, 1 week old, were fed alternately for 6 or 12 h periods with diets complementary in their amino acid composition. The isonitrogenous, isoenergetic diets were based on fish meal or sunflower meal as the sole source of protein, or fish meal–sunflower meal (40:60, w/w); each diet contained 120 g crude protein/kg. Other groups of chickens were given these diets ad lib.Net protein utilization (NPU) values obtained after a 1-week experimental period indicated that sequential feeding for both 6 and 12 h resulted in significantly improved responses compared with chickens given the same diets ad lib. These results suggested that the two protein sources, although provided at separate times, could complement each other.2. In certain treatments there was a 6 or 12 h fasting period between feeding periods to reduce the effect of nutrients from the previous period.3. For alternate feeding and fasting periods of 6 h with the combined diet, food intake and gain in body-weight were both significantly reduced compared with the corresponding values for the combined diet fed ad lib. The NPU value was virtually the same for both treatments. For 12 h periods of alternate feeding and fasting the gain in body-weight was only just significantly lower than that for the control group (combined diet fed ad lib.), but the NPU value was highly significantly better than that for the control group.4. For the treatments which included 6 and 12 h fasting periods between the two singleprotein diets, the food intake and gain in body-weight were significantly lower compared with the treatment groups given alternate feeding and fasting periods of either 6 or 12 h with the combined diet. The NPU values for the two groups given 12 h alternate feeding and fasting periods differed significantly, whereas the NPU values for the two groups given 6 h feeding and fasting periods were the same.

Performance and blood chemistry in lambs following fasting and transport

1996 ◽  
Vol 62 (1) ◽  
pp. 49-56 ◽  
Author(s):  
G. M. J. Horton ◽  
J. A. Baldwin ◽  
S. M. Emanuele ◽  
J. E. Wohlt ◽  
L. R. McDowell
Keyword(s):  
Body Weight Gain ◽  
Live Weight ◽  
Experimental Period ◽  
Blood Chemistry ◽  
Blood Parameters ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Plasma Urea ◽  
Treatment Groups ◽  
Control Food ◽  
All Treatment

AbstractThirty-six 5-month-old Dorset ram lambs (28·7 kg) were used to investigate the effects of fasting and transport on performance and selected blood parameters. Three treatment groups (no. = 12) were: (1) control-food and water, without transport; (2) fasting for 72 h, without transport; and (3) transport in a trailer to a nearby auction-barn, then driven 8 h/day for 3 days without food or water for a total of 72 h. Lambs were given a total mixed diet containing 163 g/kg crude protein throughout the 28-day post-transport period. Both fasted and transported lambs consumed less food than the control group during the first 7 days post treatment (P < 0·05). Water intake was similar for all treatment groups on the 1st day post transport, after which both fasted and transport lambs drank less ivater than control lambs during the following 6 days (P < 0·05). Live-weight loss after the 3-day fast and transport period and subsequent body-weight gain during the 28-day realimentation period differed across all treatment groups (P < 0·05 and P < 0·09; (1) 1% and 305 g, (2) 14·8% and 343 g, and (3) 20·0% and 390 g, respectively, though control lambs had the highest weight gains over the 32-day experimental period. Plasma urea nitrogen was lower in both fasted and transported lambs on days 6, 7 and 11 compared with control lambs (P < 0·05). Plasma glucose concentrations on days 4 and 5 were lower in transported lambs than in fasted lambs, and highest in control lambs (P < 0·05); glucose concentration levels remained lower in both fasted and transported lambs than in control lambs on days 6 and 7 (P < 0·05). Plasma cortisol concentrations were highest in transported lambs during the 3-day transport period and for 2 days immediately following transport (P < 0·05). Effects of the 72 h fast were exacerbated by auction barn activity and subsequent transport, and compensatory gains by fasted and transport lambs were incomplete within the 28-day post transport period.

scholarly journals Protective Effects of Bu-Shen-Huo-Xue Formula against 5/6 Nephrectomy-Induced Chronic Renal Failure in Rats

2014 ◽  
Vol 2014 ◽  
pp. 1-9 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jian-Rao Lu ◽  
Hai-Yan Han ◽  
Jie Chen ◽  
Chong-Xiang Xiong ◽  
Xin-Hua Wang ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Renal Failure ◽  
Chronic Renal Failure ◽  
Mrna Expression ◽  
Renal Tissue ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Sham Operation ◽  
Protective Effects ◽  
Treatment Groups ◽  
Significant Amelioration ◽  
Serious Disease

Chronic renal failure (CRF) is a serious disease related to increasing incidence and prevalence as well as decline in quality of life. Bu-Shen-Huo-Xue formula (BSHX), one of traditional herbal formulations, has been clinically employed to treat CRF for decades, but the mechanisms involved have not been investigated. In the present study, we investigated the effects of BSHX on some closely related parameters in 5/6 nephrectomy CRF rats. Rats with CRF were divided into five groups, namely, one control group, one enalapril group, and three BSHX treatment groups (0.25, 0.5, and 1 g/kg·d). The rats subjected to sham operation were used as a normal control. After eight weeks of treatment, BSHX significantly decreased the levels of Scr and BUN, downregulated the mRNA expression levels of TGF-β1, CTGF, NF-κB, TNF-α, and OPN, upregulated the mRNA expression of PPARγ, and reducedin situexpression of fibronectin and laminins. Histological findings also showed significant amelioration of the damaged renal tissue. BSHX protects 5/6 nephrectomy rats against chronic renal failure probably via regulating the expression of TNF-α, NF-κB, TGF-β1, CTGF, PPARγ, OPN, fibronectin, and laminins and is useful for therapy of CRF.

scholarly journals Metabolome and Microbiota Analysis Reveals the Conducive Effect of Pediococcus acidilactici BCC-1 and Xylan Oligosaccharides on Broiler Chickens

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Yuqin Wu ◽  
Zhao Lei ◽  
Youli Wang ◽  
Dafei Yin ◽  
Samuel E. Aggrey ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Propionic Acid ◽  
Broiler Chickens ◽  
Pathogenic Bacteria ◽  
Conversion Ratio ◽  
Feed Conversion Ratio ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Gut Health ◽  
Feed Conversion ◽  
Metabolome Analysis ◽  
Treatment Groups

Xylan oligosaccharides (XOS) can promote proliferation of Pediococcus acidilactic BCC-1, which benefits gut health and growth performance of broilers. The study aimed to investigate the effect of Pediococcus acidilactic BCC-1 (referred to BBC) and XOS on the gut metabolome and microbiota of broilers. The feed conversion ratio of BBC group, XOS group and combined XOS and BBC groups was lower than the control group (P &lt; 0.05). Combined XOS and BBC supplementation (MIX group) elevated butyrate content of the cecum (P &lt; 0.05) and improved ileum morphology by enhancing the ratio of the villus to crypt depth (P &lt; 0.05). The 16S rDNA results indicated that both XOS and BBC induced high abundance of butyric acid bacteria. XOS treatment elevated Clostridium XIVa and the BBC group enriched Anaerotruncus and Faecalibacterium. In contrast, MIX group induced higher relative abundance of Clostridiaceae XIVa, Clostridiaceae XIVb and Lachnospiraceae. Besides, MIX group showed lower abundance of pathogenic bacteria such as Campylobacter. Metabolome analysis showed that all the 3 treatment groups (XOS, BBC and MIX) showed lower concentrations of sorbitol and both XOS and BBC group had higher concentrations of pyridoxine levels than CT group. Besides, XOS and BBC groups enhanced the content of hydroxyphenyl derivatives 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate 1 and 3-(3-hydroxyphenyl) propionic acid, respectively (P &lt; 0.05). Notably, MIX group enhanced both 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate 1 and 3-(3-hydroxyphenyl) propionic acid (P &lt; 0.05). Thus, XOS and BBC may have a synergistic role to improve the performance of broilers by modulating gut microbiota and metabolome.

scholarly journals Green Coffea robusta (Coffea canephora) from Lampung province effect toward free radicals in chickens infected with Salmonella enteritidis bacteria

2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (1) ◽  
pp. 61-69
Author(s):  
Dahliatul Qosimah ◽  
Djalal Rosyidi ◽  
Lilik E. Radiati ◽  
Indah A. Amri ◽  
Dodik Prasetyo ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Salmonella Enteritidis ◽  
Pathogenic Bacteria ◽  
Negative Control Group ◽  
Coffea Canephora ◽  
Positive Control ◽  
Negative Control ◽  
The Body ◽  
Control Group ◽  
High Dose ◽  
Treatment Groups

Background: Foodborne diseases are caused by acquired pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella enteritidis. It causes an intestinal imbalance and the microbial toxins found in the gastrointestinal tract induce symptoms such as diarrhea. Coffee contains active ingredients such as antioxidants and is used as an anti-inflammatory agent by reducing pro-inflammatory cytokine levels in the body. Aim: The purpose of this study was to determine the interaction between Lampung’s robusta coffee and tissue damage in chickens infected by S. enteritidis. Methods: This study used first-day-old Isa brown layer chickens (n = 60), which were divided into five treatment groups. The negative control group consisted of healthy and normal chickens, whereas the positive control group consisted of chickens infected with S. enteritidis bacteria at a concentration of 108 CFU/ml. Groups T1, T2, and T3 were given coffee extract with doses of 500 mg/kg BW (low dose), 1,000 mg/kg BW (moderate dose), and 1,500 mg/kg BW (high dose), respectively, and then infected with S. enteritidis bacteria at a concentration of 108 CFU/ml. The coffee extract and bacteria were given orally via a feeding tube at a volume of 0.5 ml per chick. The extract was given for 14 days (from day 3 to day 16), and the bacteria were given on days 16 and 17. On day 18, the chickens were necropsied. The malondialdehyde (MDA) level was analyzed using one-way analysis of variance test with the GLM procedure (<0.05), while the tissue histopath was analyzed using a descriptive qualitative study to examine the ileal damage Results: The results showed that the MDA levels (nmol/l) decreased in treatment groups T1, T2, and T3 compared to the positive control. On the contrary, we found improvements in the ileum histopathology of group T1 and T2 in the form of normal and regular intestinal epithelium arrangement of the ileum, long intestinal villi, and decreased total leukocytes. Conclusion: Green coffee robusta has the potential to increase antioxidants and reduce inflammation in the small intestine of chickens infected with S. enteritidis.

scholarly journals Differences in photodynamic therapy exposure time and Staphylococcus aureus counts

2018 ◽  
Vol 51 (2) ◽  
pp. 95
Author(s):  
Adeline Jovita Tambayong ◽  
Ira Widjiastuti ◽  
Cecilia G. J. Lunardhi
Keyword(s):  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Photodynamic Therapy ◽  
Exposure Time ◽  
Pathogenic Bacteria ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Treatment Groups ◽  
Root Canals ◽  
And Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Number Of Bacteria ◽  
Colony Counter

Background: The success of endodontic treatment can be achieved when pathogenic bacteria are eliminated from the root canal and periapical tissue resulting in healing of such tissue. One of the bacteria located in root canals is Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) reportedly found to be in severe periapical abscesses. Photodynamic therapy is one current technology that can help eliminate microorganisms without causing damage to human body cells. Average of research has been conducted using different tools and bacteria to evaluate the effects of exposure time used in photodynamic therapy on the number of bacteria. Purpose: The research reported here aimed to determine the correlation between the exposure time of photodynamic therapy and the number of S. aureus bacteria. Methods: The S. aureus bacteria used in this research were divided into seven treatment groups: a control group and six treatment groups with respective exposure times of 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 seconds. All of the bacteria were administered a photosensitiser and radiated according to the treatment intended for each group. They were then planted in nutrient agar and incubated for 48 hours. The colonies of bacteria formed were calculated using the Quebec colony counter and subsequently analyzed by means of both Kruskal Wallis and Mann Whitney U tests. Results: After calculating the number of bacterial colonies, the average number of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria in the non-irradiated group was 119 CFU/ml, 29 CFU/ml in the group with a 10-second exposure time, 20 CFU/ml in the group with a 20-second exposure time, 13 CFU/ml in the group with a 30-second exposure time, 7 CFU/ml in the group with a 40-second exposure time, but none in the groups with exposure times of 50 or 60 seconds. Conclusion: The longer the photodynamic therapy exposure time, the greater the number of S. aureus bacteria eliminated. An exposure time of 50 seconds was found to be sufficient to exterminate all S. aureus bacteria present.

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