Этимологическое гнездо *ber- в праславянском языке: Реконструкция, словообразование, семантика

The Etymological Nest *ber- in the Proto-Slavic Language: Reconstruction, Word-Formation, SemanticsThe article presents a multidimensional (phonetic, etymological, derivational, morphological and semantic) description of the etymological nest (EN) *ber- ‘take’, reconstructed for the Proto-Slavic period in the history of the Russian and other Slavic languages. The root *ber-, around which the EN was formed, belongs to ancient Slavic roots and has Indo-European origin, which led to the natural phonetic variants reflecting the Proto-Slavic and Indo-European alternations: *ber- // *bor- // *bьr- // *bir-.At the Proto-Slavic level, 137 units with the root *ber- are reconstructed, organized in the EN in accordance with the relations of word-formation pro­ductivity and semantic motivation of lexemes as part of word-formation pairs, chains and paradigms: (1) the nucleus of the nest is the etymon *bherəmņ // *bherəmen ‘carry, burden’, reconstructed for the Proto-Indo-European lan­guage, which served as the basis for three Proto-Slavic innovations *bermę ‘burden; armful, bundle; fetus; *berdja ‘pregnant; foal (about animals)’; *bьrati *berǫ ‘take, take away, grab, pluck; receive, borrow, accept; enter into a mar­riage union’; (2) in accordance with a general practice adopted in etymological dictionaries, reconstructed lexemes are marked with an asterisk (*) and are represented in the Roman alphabet for the Proto-Indo-European and Proto- Slavic preliterate periods, and in Cyrillic for the period between the eleventh and the seventeenth centuries; (3) at the first stage of derivation, derivatives are arranged in the following order: verbs, verbal names, participles, prefixed verbs, composites; within these groups, words are arranged alphabetically; (4) the phonetic variants of a lexeme are separated with a double slash (//); (5) meanings are given in single quotation marks. The reconstruction of the EN *ber- and the semantic development of its main lexemes are given in two diagrams at the end of the article.A review of the material indicates that (1) the old Indo-European mean­ing ‘carry, load’ moved to the periphery of the EN *ber-, continuing to exist exclusively in the formations associated with the stem *bermę, and partly with *berdja; (2) a new meaning ‘take’ (*bьrati) became the most relevant for the semantic development of the EN *ber- in Late Slavic; its connection with the original ‘carry’ is seen in the fact that they correlate with adjacent sequen­tial actions aimed at the attached object: ‘take’ what? – ‘object to be attached’ → ‘carry’ what? – ‘attached object’; (3) the new Proto-Slavic meaning ‘take’ (*bьrati), inherent in EN *ber-, determined the synonymy of this root group with the EN *em- (*jęti, *jьmati ‘take’). Gniazdo etymologiczne *ber- w języku prasłowiańskim. Rekonstrukcja, słowotwórstwo, semantyka W artykule przedstawiono wielowymiarowy opis gniazda etymologicz­nego *ber- ‘brać’ (w aspekcie fonetycznym, etymologicznym, derywacyjnym, morfologicznym i semantycznym), zrekonstruowanego dla okresu prasłowiań­skiego w historii języka rosyjskiego i innych języków słowiańskich. Rdzeń *ber-, wokół którego powstało gniazdo etymologiczne, należy do pierwotnych rdzeni słowiańskich i ma pochodzenie indoeuropejskie, co oznaczało rozwój naturalnych wariantów fonetycznych, odzwierciedlających oboczności pra­słowiańskie i indoeuropejskie: *ber- // *bor- // *bьr- // *bir-.Na poziomie prasłowiańskim zrekonstruowano 137 jednostek z rdzeniem *ber-, które zorganizowano w ramach gniazda zgodnie z relacjami produktywno­ści słowotwórczej i motywacji semantycznej leksemów w ramach par, łańcuchów i paradygmatów słowotwórczych: 1) jądrem gniazda jest zrekonstruowany dla języka praindoeuropejskiego etymon *bherəmņ // *bherəmen ‘nieść, brzemię’, który posłużył za podstawę dla trzech prasłowiańskich innowacji *bermę ‘brzemię; naręcze, tobołek; płód’; *berdja ‘brzemienna (o zwierzętach); źrebię’; *bьrati *berǫ ‘brać, zabrać, chwycić, wyrwać; otrzymać, pożyczyć, przyjąć; zawrzeć małżeństwo’; 2) zgodnie z powszechną praktyką przyjętą w słowni­kach etymologicznych zrekonstruowane leksemy są oznaczone gwiazdką (*) i zapisane w alfabecie łacińskim dla praindoeuropejskich i prasłowiańskich okresów przedpiśmiennych oraz cyrylicą dla okresu od XI do XVII wieku; 3) na pierwszym etapie derywacji derywaty są ułożone w następującej kolejności: czasowniki, rzeczowniki odczasownikowe, imiesłowy, czasowniki przedrost­kowe, złożenia; w tych grupach słowa są ułożone alfabetycznie; 4) warianty fonetyczne leksemu są oddzielone podwójnym ukośnikiem (//); 5) znaczenia podano w pojedynczych cudzysłowach. Rekonstrukcję gniazda etymologicz­nego *ber- i rozwój semantyczny jego głównych leksemów przedstawiono na dwóch wykresach na końcu artykułu.Przegląd materiału wskazuje, że 1) dawne indoeuropejskie znaczenie ‘nieść, brzemię’ przeszło na obrzeża gniazda etymologicznego *ber- i utrzymało się nadal wyłącznie w formacjach związanych z rdzeniem *bermę i częściowo *berdja; 2) nowe znaczenie: ‘brać’ (*bьrati) stało się najbardziej istotne dla semantycznego rozwoju gniazda *ber- w okresie późnosłowiańskim; związek tego znaczenia z pierwotnym ‘nieść’ przejawia się w fakcie korelacji pomiędzy nimi w sekwencji działań na umocowany obiekt: ‘brać’ co? – ‘obiekt do umo­cowania’ → ‘nieść’ co? – ‘umocowany obiekt’; 3) nowe prasłowiańskie znaczenie ‘brać’ (*bьrati), nieodłącznie związane z gniazdem *ber-, określiło synonimię tej grupy rdzeniowej z gniazdem *em- (*jęti, *jьmati ‘brać’).

SEMANTIC DEVELOPMENT IN ARABIC LANGUAGE (AN ANALYTICAL STUDY ON DIWAN ABI TAMMAM) / التطور الدلالي فى اللغة العربية (دراسة تحليلية عن ديوان أبي تمام)

This study aims to determine the development of Arabic semantics in Diwan Abi Tammam book. Abu Tammam is a modern Arabic poet. He has poetry books which have been printed several times and all of his poetry is collected in a book that is known as Diwan Abi Tammam. This research is limited to the types of semantic development. The method used was content analysis. This study begins with an analysis of semantic development in Arabic and then its application in the Diwan Abi Tammam book. The results of this study indicate that the types of semantic development in Diwan Abi Tammam are grammatical and phonemic semantics. The grammatical semantic elements include the meaning of a sentence based on the elements of imagination, aesthetics, stylistic and rhetoric. Whereas, the semantic phonemic elements include the meaning of characteristics of several composed sounds and these sounds have a meaning role in a word such as the differences in the use of halqi, ra’, and sin, and their influence on the meaning of the target object.

Słowa pochwały – o semantyce pewnych przymiotników oceniających

The article concerns several dozen adjectives expressing a general positive assessment in Polish. The analysis aims to reveal the concepts that motivate the semantic development of the adjectives listed above from other, more specific meanings to the evaluation meaning. The author concludes that evaluative adjectives are motivated by concepts from several specific semantic circles, e.g. ‘large size’, ‘light’, ‘rarity’, ‘unreality’ etc.

Udareniye: Diachronic and Lexicographic Description of the Linguistic Term and its Breaking Away from the Greek and Church Slavonic Tradition

The article is devoted to the study of the Russian linguistic term “udareniye” (“stress” / “accent”) from the historicolinguistic, etymological and lexicographic viewpoints. Currently, there are hardly any studies analyzing the term’s semantic development or attempts to present its semantic structure in a dictionary, based on textual and lexicographic sources ranging from the end of the 16th to the end of the 19th century, that would make it possible that would make it possible to trace the semantic changes of the term in the course of time. The existing studies mainly address the the issues of terminology developed in individual authors’ grammars, or describe the terminology of grammars related to a certain period of time or a specific epoch. The purpose of this article is to systematize etymological information about the term “udareniye”, to conduct an historico-linguistic analysis of its semantics, starting with the first Russian grammars and lexicons. The research uses comparative, definitional, etymological, semantic and lexicographic methods. The semantic structure of the term “udareniye”, when taking into account its two main meanings (emphasizing of some syllable in the word with voice and reflection of such an emphasis in writing by graphical means, e.g. diacritics), begins to take shape from its first written fixation in 1591 in Adelphotes and ends by 1830, when grammarians finally stopped associating the Russian accent, uniform by nature, with the sound length and modulations of the tone, and focused their attention on the study of intensity (pronouncing power), which can be regarded as the main acoustic feature of the stressed syllable in languages with dynamic stress. By this time, the type of the Russian stress stops being identified with the Greek and Church Slavonic patterns and the attempts to uncritically borrow the corresponding terminological nominations with their forms and meanings from Greek into Russian come to an end. The term “udareniye” got probably for the first time its lexicographic entry at the beginning of the 18th century due to Polikarpov-Orlov who described its meaning 1 in his dictionary. In its meaning 2 – based on the Greek-Church Slavonic tradition, – the term is found in almost all the text sources examined by the author, starting from Adelphotes, that is from the end of the 16th century. As for its first lexicographic fixation, it took place in 1763 in Poletika’s dictionary.

Functional and semantic development of the Middle English lexeme milde (Based on the Corpus of Middle English Prose and Verse)

This article focuses on the features of the functional and semantic development of the Middle English adjective milde, which in the studied period was a means of moral and ethical evaluation. Middle English written monuments of the XII–XV centuries both religious and secular serve as the material of the study.

On the origin of Pol. dial. kautek ‘dwarf’, G dial. (EPr.) Kautke ‘ditto’

On the Origin of Mythonyms (Pol. dial. kautek, (G dial) (wschprus.) Kautke) Referring to etymological analysis, the author of this article presents a new hypothesis concerning the origin of the Polish mythological name kautek and the East Prussian word Kautke. The analysis refers to the description of derivatives and semantic development of those mythonyms. While summing up the research results, one may conclude that mythological names such as Pol. dial. kautek, G dial. (EPr.) Kautke belong to lexemes of the West Slavic origin. More precisely, those mythonyms are derived from Pol. dial. *kałtunek ‘a mythological being who makes human hair tangled’ ↔ ‘a dwarf’ ← WSl. *kołtun ‘a mythological being’ (> USrb. kołtun ‘wił – a demon living in a tree’ ↔ (M)Pol. (dial.) kołtun ‘hair allegedly tangled because of a disease called trichoma’ < PSl. *kъḷtunъ ‘curled hair’) + dem. suff. Pol. -ek. East Prussian mythologeme Kautke belongs to Polonisms used in the past in the Duchy of Prussia.

LEXICAL AND STYLISTIC FEATURES OF TRANSLATION OF DIPLOMATIC TEXTS (BASED ON THE TEXTS OF THE MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS OF RUSSIA WEBSITE INTHEPERIODOF 2018-2019)

В настоящей статье исследуются лексико-стилистические особенности дипломатических текстов путем сравнения текстов оригинала и перевода с применением сопоставительного анализа для выявления наиболее успешной стратегии перевода.Статья представляет выводы по результатам анализа 590 единиц, взятых из выступлений, пресс-конференций и интервью Министра иностранных дел Российской Федерации С. В. Лаврова и его представителей, а также брифингов и комментариев официального представителя МИДа России М. В. Захаровой. Предметом настоящего исследования выступают лексико-стилистические особенности перевода дипломатического текста. Целью исследования является выявление и анализ лексико-стилистических особенностей дипломатического текста в аспекте перевода. Для достижения поставленной цели исследования авторами были использованы следующие методы: сравнительно-сопоставительный и аналитический. В результате исследования было установлено, что при передаче лексических особенностей дипломатического текста переводчики наиболее часто используют такие приемы, как калькирование и смысловое развитие. При переводе стилистических особенностей используются такие приемы, как калькирование, эквивалентный перевод, деметафоризация и функциональная замена. This article examines the lexical and stylistic features of diplomatic texts by comparing the original and translated texts with the use of comparative analysis to identify the most successful translation strategies. The article presents the results of the analysis of 590 items from the speeches, press conferences and interviews of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation Sergey Lavrov and his representatives, as well as the briefings and comments of the official representative of the Russian Foreign Ministry Maria Zakharova. The subject of this study is the lexical and stylistic features of the translation of diplomatic texts. The goal of the study is to identify and analyze the lexical and stylistic features of the diplomatic text in the aspect of translation. To achieve the goal of the study, the authors used the following methods: comparative and analytical methods. As a result of the study, it was found that when translating the lexical features of the diplomatic text, translators most often use such techniques as calquing and semantic development. When translating stylistic features, translators use such techniques as calquing, equivalent translation, demetaphorization, and functional substitution.

LEXICAL TRANSFORMATIONS IN THE TRANSLATION OF TONY MORRISON'S NOVEL "SONG OF SOLOMON"

The article deals with the research of lexical transformations in the translation of Tony Morrison's novel "Song of Solomon". The main types of lexical transformations used in the translation from English to Ukrainian were highlighted. Also, it was proposed to define the term "translation transformations" based on the analysis of the views of various scholars on this issue. Three concepts are mentioned, according to which the term transformation is fixed. The multifaceted nature of the covered issue made it possible to give reasons for the use of lexical and semantic transformations and why transformations are useful for translators. The analysis was performed on the basis of a classification developed by J. Retsker. According to the famous researcher, there are seven types of transformations: concretization, differentiation, generalization, semantic development, antonymous translation, integral transformation and compensation of losses in the process of translation. Each of the types is analysed and examples of transformations in the process of translation of the work of art are presented. Despite the large number of works covering this issue, the problem of translating prose texts is relevant. There is a need to systematize and study the types of lexical and grammatical transformations, used in translating literary texts, in practice. The various scientists’ approaches to establishing the transformation types are analysed. It is revealed that due to differences in the syntactic, grammatical and morphological structures of the English and Ukrainian languages, lexical and grammatical transformations are widely used in translation. Lexical transformations are the deviations from direct vocabulary equivalents. The lexical transformations are mainly caused by the fact that the volume of the lexical units of the original language and the language of translation do not coincide. The concept of lexical transformations and their classification is defined. It is revealed that due to differences in the syntactic and morphological structures of the English and Ukrainian languages, lexical transformations are widely used in the translation. Among lexical transformations in the translation, the most common are generalization, concretization, compensation, antonymic translation.

Analysis of Linguo-cultural Picture of LIE in Systemic Data

The article presents Lithuanian linguistic cultural image of LIE (MELAS) reconstructed from lexicographic data. The analysis of the lexicographic definitions of this lexeme in Lithuanian dictionaries (The Dictionary of Lithuanian Language, The Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian, the dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms and Lithuanian etymological sources) provides two views of the concept: synchronic and diachronic. The diachronic view shows the semantic development of the word, the specification of its meaning (the loss of the primary and the acquisition of new meanings). The synchronic view shows the basic meaning of the concept and its profiles in contemporary language. The research revealed that the basic meaning is LIE as a subject’s purposeful distortion of reality with the purpose of deception. The dominating aspects are: a subject’s purposeful activity and an object that a subject wants to deceive. Lexicographic data distinguished several profiles of LIE: (1) LIE as entertainment (when lie is used for joking, visual storytelling and has no negative purpose), (2) LIE as unethical issue (when lying is seen as negative, sinister activity) and (3) LIE as psychologically necessary element of life (when lie is seen as useful, helping to get out of difficult situations). The analysis is concluded with the cognitive definition of lie, providing its linguo-cultural view in Lithuanian.

LEXICAL TECHNIQUES OF TRANSLATING NEWSPAPER HEADLINES (BASED ON THE MATERIAL OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE)

В статье анализируются наиболее частотные лексические трансформации современных газетных заголовков в переводе с английского языка на русский. В ходе исследования было установлено, что с лексической точки зрения наиболее значимыми на сегодняшний день являются такие переводческие приемы как переводческая транскрипция и транслитерация, переводческое калькирование, конкретизация, генерализация и модуляция. The article deals with the analysis of the most frequent lexical transformations of modern newspaper headlines translated from English into Russian. The study revealed that, from a lexical point of view, the most significant are such translation methods as lexical addition, lexical omission, concretization, generalization, antonymic translation, compensation, explication, semantic development.