scholarly journals Oxytetracycline and Florfenicol Concentrations in Food-Additive Premixes Authorised for Broiler Chickens: Assessing Degree of Agreement with Manufacturers Labelling

Animals ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (6) ◽  
pp. 1797
Author(s):  
Aldo Maddaleno ◽  
Matías Maturana ◽  
Ekaterina Pokrant ◽  
Betty San Martín ◽  
Javiera Cornejo
Keyword(s):  
Broiler Chickens ◽  
Plasma Concentrations ◽  
Pharmaceutical Product ◽  
Food Additive ◽  
Active Ingredients ◽  
Actual Concentration ◽  
Bacterial Origin ◽  
Calibration Curves ◽  
Label Statement

Antimicrobials premixes are the presentation of choice to administer drugs simultaneously to groups of animals in intensive husbandry systems that require treatment for pathologies of bacterial origin. Among the premixes available for use in poultry, florfenicol and oxytetracycline are commonly administered via food or water. However, their actual concentration in premixes must meet on-label statements to ensure plasma concentrations reach effective therapeutic levels. Hence, this work was designed for the purpose of verifying whether the concentration of antimicrobial present in five premixes matched their on-label statement. Three oxytetracycline premixes, and two of florfenicol, were analysed using a Xevo TQ-S micro UPLC-MS/MS, and an ABSciex API4000 HPLC-MS/MS, respectively. Analytical methodologies were implemented and validated, showing an R2 ≥ 0.99 for the calibration curves. Oxytetracycline was detected in these premixes at concentrations exceeding on-label statements by 13.28%, 21.54%, and 29.68%, whereas florfenicol concentrations detected in premixes were 13.06% and 14.75% lower than expected. Consequently, this work shows that the concentration of active ingredients that are present in commercial formulations effectively differ from those stated on premix labels, and it also highlights how unpredictable their range of variability might be. This must be addressed through solid and updated laws that guarantee an effective pharmaceutical product.

scholarly journals Progress towards reduced-crude protein diets for broiler chickens and sustainable chicken-meat production

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Sonia Yun Liu ◽  
Shemil P. Macelline ◽  
Peter V. Chrystal ◽  
Peter H. Selle
Keyword(s):  
Amino Acids ◽  
Amino Acid ◽  
Broiler Chickens ◽  
Crude Protein ◽  
Plasma Concentrations ◽  
Essential Amino Acids ◽  
Chicken Meat ◽  
Meat Production ◽  
Accurate Identification ◽  
Reduced Crude Protein

AbstractThe prime purpose of this review is to explore the pathways whereby progress towards reduced-crude protein (CP) diets and sustainable chicken-meat production may be best achieved. Reduced-CP broiler diets have the potential to attenuate environmental pollution from nitrogen and ammonia emissions; moreover, they have the capacity to diminish the global chicken-meat industry’s dependence on soybean meal to tangible extents. The variable impacts of reduced-CP broiler diets on apparent amino acid digestibility coefficients are addressed. The more accurate identification of amino acid requirements for broiler chickens offered reduced-CP diets is essential as this would diminish amino acid imbalances and the deamination of surplus amino acids. Deamination of amino acids increases the synthesis and excretion of uric acid for which there is a requirement for glycine, this emphasises the value of so-called “non-essential” amino acids. Starch digestive dynamics and their possible impact of glucose on pancreatic secretions of insulin are discussed, although the functions of insulin in avian species require clarification. Maize is probably a superior feed grain to wheat as the basis of reduced-CP diets; if so, the identification of the underlying reasons for this difference should be instructive. Moderating increases in starch concentrations and condensing dietary starch:protein ratios in reduced-CP diets may prove to be advantageous as expanding ratios appear to be aligned to inferior broiler performance. Threonine is specifically examined because elevated free threonine plasma concentrations in birds offered reduced-CP diets may be indicative of compromised performance. If progress in these directions can be realised, then the prospects of reduced-CP diets contributing to sustainable chicken-meat production are promising.

Effects of different heat stress periods on various blood and meat quality parameters in young Arbor Acer broiler chickens

2013 ◽  
Vol 93 (4) ◽  
pp. 453-460 ◽  
Author(s):  
Shu Tang ◽  
Jimian Yu ◽  
Miao Zhang ◽  
Endong Bao
Keyword(s):  
Heat Stress ◽  
Meat Quality ◽  
Shear Force ◽  
Broiler Chickens ◽  
Plasma Concentrations ◽  
Membrane Integrity ◽  
Muscle Metabolism ◽  
Quality Parameters ◽  
Economic Losses ◽  
Clear Understanding

Tang, S., Yu, J., Zhang, M. and Bao, E. 2013. Effects of different heat stress periods on various blood and meat quality parameters in young Arbor Acer broiler chickens. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 93: 453–460. Heat stress can influence muscle metabolism and meat quality in animals reared for food production. From a commercial perspective, understanding the mechanism of this effect is clearly necessary. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of different heat stress periods on serum metabolites and chicken meat quality (n=120). Plasma indicators creatine kinase (CK), glutamic-pyruvic transaminase (GPT), glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase (GOT), insulin and glucagon and meat quality (pH, expressible moisture, cooking losses, shear force values) were evaluated. Compared with controls, the concentrations of CK and GPT increased (P<0.01) after 2 and 3 h of heat stress, respectively, whereas plasma insulin and glucagon decreased after 1 and 5 h of heat stress, respectively. The immediate pH (pHi) and ultimate pH (pHu) of the pectoralis muscles decreased (P<0.01) after 1 and 2 h of exposure to heat stress, respectively. Cooking loss, expressible moisture and shear force value increased (P<0.01) after 3, 2, and 1 h of heat stress, respectively. These data indicate that elevated plasma concentrations of CK and GPT can be used as parameters for assessing the stress level to which broilers are exposed before slaughter. The preslaughter exposure of broiler chickens to heat stress can alter muscle metabolism and membrane integrity, leading to undesirable meat characteristics. Thus, a clear understanding of the mechanisms underlying these processes will contribute to the determination of prevention strategies and the avoidance of the associated economic losses.

scholarly journals Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamic Efficacy Prediction Indexes and Monte Carlo Simulations of Enrofloxacin Hydrochloride Against Bacterial Strains That Induce Common Clinical Diseases in Broiler Chickens

2021 ◽  
Vol 7 ◽  
Author(s):  
Karina P. D. Bonassa ◽  
Miwa Y. Miragliotta ◽  
Rosineide C. Simas ◽  
Marcos N. Eberlin ◽  
Arturo Anadón ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Monte Carlo ◽  
Plasma Concentration ◽  
Monte Carlo Simulations ◽  
Broiler Chickens ◽  
Inhibitory Concentration ◽  
Plasma Concentrations ◽  
Bacterial Strains ◽  
E Coli ◽  
Concentration Time ◽  
Efficacy Prediction

Pharmacokinetic parameters and efficacy prediction indexes (Cmax/MIC90 and AUC0−24/MIC90) of an enrofloxacin hydrochloride (ENR-HCl) veterinary product soluble in water were determined in healthy broiler chickens of both sexes after a single oral dose of ENR-HCl (equivalent to 10 mg ENR base/kg bw). Monte Carlo simulations targeting Cmax/MIC90 = 10 and AUC0−24/MIC90 =125 were also performed based on a set of MIC (minimum inhibitory concentration) values of bacterial strains that induce common clinical diseases in broiler chickens and that showed to be susceptible to ENR-HCl. Plasma concentrations of ENR and its main metabolite ciprofloxacin (CIP) were determined by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Plasma concentration-time curves were found to fit a non-compartmental open model. The ratio of the area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC) of CIP/ENR was 4.91%. Maximum plasma concentrations of 1.35 ± 0.15 μg/mL for ENR-HCl and 0.09 ± 0.01 μg/mL for CIP were reached at 4.00 ± 0.00 h and 3.44 ± 1.01 h, respectively. Areas under the plasma vs. time concentration curve in 24 h (AUC0−24) were 18.91 ± 1.91 h × μg/mL and 1.19 ± 0.12 h × μg/mL for ENR-HCl and CIP, respectively. Using a microbroth dilution method, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC90) values were determined for ENR-HCl for 10 bacterial strains (Mycoplasma gallisepticum, Mycoplasma synoviae, Avibacterium paragallinarum, Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella ser. Enteritidis, Salmonella ser. Gallinarum, Salmonella ser. Pullorum, and Salmonella ser. Typhimurium), which are the most common causes of infectious clinical diseases in broiler chickens. In summary, the PK/PD ratios and Monte Carlo simulation were carried out for ENR-HCl in poultry, which due to its solubility was administered in drinking water. The PK/PD efficacy prediction indexes and Monte Carlo simulations indicated that the ENR-HCl oral dose used in this study is useful for bacterial infections in treating C. perfringens (Gram-positive), E. coli and S. ser. Enteritidis (Gram-negative) and M. gallisepticum bacteria responsible for systemic infections in poultry, predicting a success rate of 100% when MIC ≤ 0.06 μg/mL for E. coli and S. ser. Enteritidis and MIC ≤ 0.1 μg/mL for M. gallisepticum. For C. perfringens, the success rate was 98.26% for MIC ≤ 0.12. However, clinical trials are needed to confirm this recommendation.

scholarly journals Effect of environmental temperature on muscle protein turnover and heat production in tube-fed broiler chickens

1997 ◽  
Vol 77 (6) ◽  
pp. 897-909 ◽  
Author(s):  
Vitus D. Yunianto ◽  
K. Hayashit ◽  
S. Kaiwda ◽  
A. Ohtsuka ◽  
Y. Tomita
Keyword(s):  
Heat Production ◽  
Protein Turnover ◽  
Broiler Chickens ◽  
Environmental Temperature ◽  
Muscle Protein ◽  
Plasma Concentrations ◽  
Abdominal Fat ◽  
Fat Content ◽  
Muscle Protein Turnover ◽  
Environmental Temperatures

The present experiments4 were undertaken to investigate the effects of environmental temperatures on growth, abdominal fat content, rate of muscle protein turnover, and heat production in tube-fed intact male broiler chickens. Plasma concentrations of thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), and corticosterone (CTC) were also examined. Chicks (15d old) were kept at different environmental temperatures (16,19,22,25,28,31, and 34°) and given the experimental diet (200g crude protein/kg, 13·;57M/kg metabolizable energy) by tube three times daily throughout the 12d experimental period. In the hot conditions, except for 34°, body-weight gain was significantly higher than in the cold conditions. Thus, food conversion ratios (food: gain ratios) were lower when the birds were exposed to the hot conditions other than 34°. Likewise, abdominal fat content was significantly increased, and heat production was lower in the groups kept under the hot conditions other than 34°. The rate of skeletal muscle protein turnover and plasma concentration of CTC were decreased when the birds were exposed to hot conditions other than 34°. suggesting a role of CTC in the regulation of muscle protein turnover. Plasma concentrations of T4 and T3 were significantly decreased as environmental temperature increased. These results clearly show that plasma concentrations of thyroid hormones and CTC are associated with accelerated muscle protein turnover and heat production.

scholarly journals Slaughter indicators of broiler–chickens are for the ration enrichment by citrate of nanomolibden and complex food additive «Probics»

2016 ◽  
Vol 18 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
N. P. Holovko ◽  
I. V. Zabarna
Keyword(s):  
Broiler Chickens ◽  
Positive Influence ◽  
Food Additive ◽  
Mass Ratio ◽  
Functional Load

The work analyses the influence of citrate nanomolibden (CNM) and food additive (FA) «Probics» which is had on the slaughter indicators of broiler–chickens (pre–slaughtered mass, mass of non–cleaned carcass, mass of half–cleaned carcass, mass of cleaned carcass, mass of slaughtered carcass, mass of internals, and mass of internals in comparison with slaughtered outcome). The author determines that the broiler–chickens’ mass of the tested groups before being slaughtered as well as the mass of non–cleaned, half–cleaned and cleaned carcasses is definitely more than the same indicators of the controlled groups. Broiler–chickens’ slaughtered outcome has the biggest quantity in the tested groups in comparison with the controlled ones because the ration of the tested groups has been enriched by citrate of nanomolibden (CNM). For certain, the same indicator of broiler–chickens of the tested group, the ration of which has been enriched by food additive (FA) «Probics», does not differ from the controlled group but it is a little bit higher. Thus, the work highlights that the use of CNM in concentration 0.24 mg/dm³ has a positive influence on the indicators of slaughtered broiler–chickens in comparison with the controlled group as well as with the broiler–chickens’ group the ration of which has included FA «Probics». Having the aim to distinguish the functional load which is had on the viscera of the used nutraceuticals it has been set out that the mass ratio of edible organs such as liver, heart, muscular part of a stomach of broiler–chickens of the tested and controlled groups of pre–slaughtered outcome. The work proves that the mass of broiler–chickens’ viscera of the tested group such as liver, heart, muscular part of a stomach is relatively bigger in comparison to the control but their ratio to the slaughtered outcome has an opposite appropriateness.

Ontogeny and secretory patterns of plasma insulin-like growth factor-I concentrations in meat-type chickens

1990 ◽  
Vol 124 (1) ◽  
pp. 81-87 ◽  
Author(s):  
R. J. Johnson ◽  
J. P. McMurtry ◽  
F. J. Ballard
Keyword(s):  
Plasma Concentration ◽  
Broiler Chickens ◽  
Plasma Insulin ◽  
Plasma Concentrations ◽  
Blood Samples ◽  
Factor I ◽  
Igf I ◽  
Plasma Gh ◽  
Secretory Pattern ◽  
Meat Type

ABSTRACT The ontogeny and secretory pattern of plasma insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) in relation to GH secretion were studied in meat-type (broiler) poultry during prepubertal and post-pubertal growth. Male and female broiler chickens of two commercial strains (strains A and B) were reared from 1 to 198 days of age. From 1 to 49 days of age birds were reared in raised-wire cages and thereafter in deep-litter pens, with food available ad libitum. Blood samples were taken at regular intervals during growth, and at 29 and 43 days of age representative birds were cannulated and serial blood samples taken at 10-min intervals for 5 to 7 h. Plasma concentrations of GH and IGF-I were measured by radioimmunoassay. Birds of strain A were heavier (P<0·05) than those of strain B from 12 to 35 days of age. In general, male birds were heavier (P<0·01) than females from 12 to 35 days of age. Plasma GH concentrations were significantly higher (P<0·05) from 12 to 35 days of age, while plasma IGF-I concentrations were lower (P<0·05) from 6 to 21 days of age in male compared with female birds. Plasma IGF-I concentration increased with age, reaching a plateau at 28 days of age, while plasma GH concentration declined over the same period. Plasma IGF-I concentrations declined in a linear manner from 49 to 198 days of age, and there was no evidence of a pubertal increase. There were no differences between strains in the plasma concentrations of GH or IGF-I. Serial blood sampling at 29 and 43 days of age showed that there was no relationship between GH and IGF-I, despite a highly pulsatile GH secretory pattern which existed at 29 days of age. These results show that as the plasma concentration of GH declines that of IGF-I increases. Plasma concentration of both GH and IGF-I in broiler chickens was sexually dimorphic, especially during the early growth phase to about 35 days of age. Journal of Endocrinology (1990) 124, 81–87

Effects of organic selenium supplementation on growth performance, nutrient utilisation, oxidative stress and selenium tissue concentrations in broiler chickens

2014 ◽  
Vol 54 (7) ◽  
pp. 966 ◽  
Author(s):  
Pietro Celi ◽  
Peter H. Selle ◽  
Aaron J. Cowieson
Keyword(s):  
Growth Performance ◽  
Muscle Tissue ◽  
Broiler Chickens ◽  
Control Diet ◽  
Plasma Concentrations ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Reactive Oxygen Metabolites ◽  
Organic Selenium ◽  
Nutrient Utilisation ◽  
Dietary Treatments

The effects of organic selenium (Se) supplementation of diets for broiler chickens were evaluated in the present study. Broiler diets had average background Se concentrations of 0.36 mg/kg Se (control diet) and were supplemented with two organic Se sources, namely BiOnyc® Tor-Sel (selenohomolanthionine = SH) and Alltech’s Sel PlexTM (selenomethionine = SM); their addition increased dietary selenium concentrations by an average of 0.57 mg/kg Se. Their effects on growth performance, nutrient utilisation and oxidative status of broiler chickens were determined. Growth performance was very similar across all dietary treatments; in contrast, significant differences in nutrient utilisation were observed. The N-corrected apparent metabolisable energy value for the control group (14.14 MJ/kg) and SH (14.15 MJ/kg) diet was significantly (P < 0.01) higher than that for the SM (13.64 MJ/kg) diet. Alternatively, N retention with the SM (68.4%) diet was significantly (P < 0.005) higher than that for the control (65.2%) and SH (64.5%) diets. Neither of the Se sources influenced plasma concentrations of reactive oxygen metabolites, biological antioxidant potential and advanced oxidation protein products. The activity of glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase in both plasma and tissues samples and the concentration of plasma glutathione were increased by SH and SM compared with the control group. Our findings suggest that SH and SM improved the antioxidant status of broilers by elevating activities of antioxidant enzymes and concentrations of antioxidant. Both Se supplements significantly (P < 0.001) increased Se concentrations in liver and muscle, and in liver tissue there was no statistical difference between the two supplements. However, SH generated significantly higher Se concentrations in muscle tissue (0.283 versus 0.257; P < 0.005) than did SM. In summary, SH was at least the equivalent to SM as a source of organic Se for broiler chickens under the conditions of the present feeding study. This is reflected in the outcome that SH generated significantly higher Se concentrations in muscle tissue than did the alternative Se supplement.

scholarly journals Dietary supplementation of glycine modulates inflammatory response indicators in broiler chickens

2008 ◽  
Vol 100 (5) ◽  
pp. 1019-1028 ◽  
Author(s):  
Kazuaki Takahashi ◽  
Akira Aoki ◽  
Testuya Takimoto ◽  
Yukio Akiba
Keyword(s):  
Inflammatory Response ◽  
Growth Performance ◽  
Broiler Chickens ◽  
Inflammatory Responses ◽  
Plasma Concentrations ◽  
Basal Diet ◽  
Broiler Chicks ◽  
Soyabean Meal ◽  
Ifn Γ ◽  
Pro Inflammatory Cytokines

Three experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of dietary glycine (Gly) supplementation on inflammatory responses in broiler chicks fed a basal diet using maize and soyabean meal as the primary ingredients. Inflammation-related processes following lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection were examined by analysing plasma concentrations of nitrate plus nitrite (NOx) and ceruloplasmin (Cer) in experiments 1 and 2, or expression of several genes in the spleen and liver including IL-1β and -6, TNF-like ligand (TL)1A, inducible NO synthase, interferon (IFN)-γ and toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 were examined in experiment 3. Growth performance was also determined following immunological stimulation by both LPS and Sephadex injection in experiment 2. In experiment 1, birds fed a diet supplemented with Gly at 10 or 20 g/kg showed lower responses in plasma NOx and Cer than birds fed the diet supplemented with Gly at 0 or 40 g/kg. In experiment 2, a similar effect of Gly supplementation at 10 g/kg on plasma NOx and Cer was observed when chicks were fed either an isonitrogenous diet with Gly or glutamic acid (Glu). Gly-supplemented diet-fed birds showed better growth performance than Glu-supplemented diet-fed birds. The splenic expression of inflammatory response-related genes in birds fed a diet supplemented with Gly at 10 g/kg diet was lower than that of birds fed the basal diet in experiment 3. These results suggest that dietary Gly supplementation modulates the inflammatory response partly through changes in the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1, IL-6, IFN-γ and TL1A.

scholarly journals Toxicokinetics of Hydrolyzed Fumonisin B1 after Single Oral or Intravenous Bolus to Broiler Chickens Fed a Control or a Fumonisins-Contaminated Diet

Toxins ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 12 (6) ◽  
pp. 413 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gunther Antonissen ◽  
Siegrid De Baere ◽  
Barbara Novak ◽  
Dian Schatzmayr ◽  
Danica den Hollander ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Oral Administration ◽  
Broiler Chickens ◽  
Clinical Symptoms ◽  
Control Diet ◽  
Plasma Concentrations ◽  
Fumonisin B1 ◽  
Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography ◽  
Limit Of Quantification ◽  
Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass ◽  
Hydrolyzed Fumonisin

The toxicokinetics (TK) of hydrolyzed fumonisin B1 (HFB1) were evaluated in 16 broiler chickens after being fed either a control or a fumonisins-contaminated diet (10.8 mg fumonisin B1, 3.3 mg B2 and 1.5 mg B3/kg feed) for two weeks, followed by a single oral (PO) or intravenous (IV) dose of 1.25 mg/kg bodyweight (BW) of HFB1. Fumonisin B1 (FB1), its partially hydrolyzed metabolites pHFB1a and pHFB1b, and fully hydrolyzed metabolite HFB1, were determined in chicken plasma using a validated ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method. None of the broiler chicken showed clinical symptoms of fumonisins (FBs) or HFB1 toxicity during the trial, nor was an aberration in body weight observed between the animals fed the FBs-contaminated diet and those fed the control diet. HFB1 was shown to follow a two-compartmental pharmacokinetic model with first order elimination in broiler chickens after IV administration. Toxicokinetic parameters of HFB1 demonstrated a total body clearance of 16.39 L/kg·h and an intercompartmental flow of 8.34 L/kg·h. Low levels of FB1 and traces of pHFB1b were found in plasma of chickens fed the FBs-contaminated diet. Due to plasma concentrations being under the limit of quantification (LOQ) after oral administration of HFB1, no toxicokinetic modelling could be performed in broiler chickens after oral administration of HFB1. Moreover, no phase II metabolites, nor N-acyl-metabolites of HFB1 could be detected in this study.

scholarly journals Effects of Cyclic High Ambient Temperature and Dietary Supplementation of Orotic Acid, a Pyrimidine Precursor, on Plasma and Muscle Metabolites in Broiler Chickens

Metabolites ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 10 (5) ◽  
pp. 189
Author(s):  
Saki Shimamoto ◽  
Kiriko Nakamura ◽  
Shozo Tomonaga ◽  
Satoru Furukawa ◽  
Akira Ohtsuka ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Lipid Peroxidation ◽  
Ambient Temperature ◽  
Broiler Chickens ◽  
Orotic Acid ◽  
Plasma Concentrations ◽  
High Ambient Temperature ◽  
Pyrimidine Metabolism ◽  
Acid Supplementation ◽  
Treatment Groups ◽  
Plasma Malondialdehyde

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of high ambient temperature (HT) and orotic acid supplementation on the plasma and muscle metabolomic profiles in broiler chickens. Thirty-two 14-day-old broiler chickens were divided into four treatment groups that were fed diets with or without 0.7% orotic acid under thermoneutral (25 ± 1 °C) or cyclic HT (35 ± 1 °C for 8 h/day) conditions for 2 weeks. The chickens exposed to HT had higher plasma malondialdehyde concentrations, suggesting an increase in lipid peroxidation, which is alleviated by orotic acid supplementation. The HT environment also affected the serine, glutamine, and tyrosine plasma concentrations, while orotic acid supplementation affected the aspartic acid, glutamic acid, and tyrosine plasma concentrations. Untargeted gas chromatography–triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS)-based metabolomics analysis identified that the HT affected the plasma levels of metabolites involved in purine metabolism, ammonia recycling, pyrimidine metabolism, homocysteine degradation, glutamate metabolism, urea cycle, β-alanine metabolism, glycine and serine metabolism, and aspartate metabolism, while orotic acid supplementation affected metabolites involved in pyrimidine metabolism, β-alanine metabolism, the malate–aspartate shuttle, and aspartate metabolism. Our results suggest that cyclic HT affects various metabolic processes in broiler chickens, and that orotic acid supplementation ameliorates HT-induced increases in lipid peroxidation.

Sign in / Sign up

Export Citation Format

Share Document